/Users/andrea/_magisterarbeit/korpus/clean/trainkorpus/1/file_64.html NN ----------------------------------------- : Linguistic JJ Communication NP A DT Comparative JJ Field NP Study NP Claude NP Piron NP cpiron NN bluewin NN . SENT ch NN Our PP$ world NN is VBZ shrinking VVG . SENT International JJ exchanges NNS , , commercial JJ and CC cultural JJ , , are VBP growing VVG at IN a DT tremendous JJ rate NN , , and CC traveling VVG to TO far RB away RB places VVZ is VBZ becoming VVG a DT commonplace JJ occurrence NN for IN many JJ people NNS for IN whom WP it PP was VBD just RB unthinkable JJ a DT few JJ decades NNS ago RB . 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SENT only RB a DT few JJ languages NNS would MD be VB allowed VVN , , but CC every DT speaker NN or CC writer NN of IN a DT document NN would MD be VB obliged VVN to TO use VV another DT language NN than IN his PP$ own JJ . SENT In IN this DT system NN , , if IN , , for IN instance NN , , the DT European NP Union NP limited VVD the DT working VVG languages NNS to TO English NP , , French NP and CC German NP , , a DT British JJ citizen NN would MD not RB be VB allowed VVN to TO make VV a DT speech NN in IN English NP , , he PP would MD have VH to TO express VV himself PP in IN French JJ or CC German JJ . SENT Less RBR equal JJ colleagues NNS would MD thus RB cease VV to TO exist VV . SENT Unfortunately RB , , power NN politics NN being VBG what WP they PP are VBP , , the DT odds NNS are VBP strongly RB against IN the DT adoption NN of IN such PDT an DT alternative NN , , which WDT would MD reestablish VV equality NN . SENT e SYM Linguistic JJ cost NN of IN a DT session NN Interpretation NN is VBZ the DT main JJ item NN in IN the DT language NN costs NNS of IN a DT session NN . SENT The DT cost NN consists VVZ essentially RB of IN the DT salary NN or CC fee NN paid VVN to TO the DT interpreters NNS and CC technicians NNS . SENT The DT larger JJR the DT number NN of IN languages NNS , , the DT higher JJR the DT costs NNS will MD be VB . SENT Thus RB the DT highest JJS cost NN is VBZ linked VVN to TO the DT European JJ Union NP system NN . SENT Indeed RB , , the DT gap NN between IN this DT system NN and CC the DT others NNS is VBZ , , in IN this DT regard NN , , enormous JJ . SENT The DT multinational JJ and CC Esperanto NN systems NNS are VBP free JJ of IN any DT cost NN for IN this DT item NN . SENT f SYM Cost NN of IN producing VVG a DT document NN The DT wider JJR the DT language NN spectrum NN , , the DT higher JJR the DT cost NN of IN documentation NN . SENT The DT costs NNS include VVP , , above IN all DT , , the DT salary NN of IN translators NNS , , proofreaders NNS , , technical JJ experts NNS , , librarians NNS , , reference NN staff NN where WRB such JJ a DT personnel NN exists VVZ , , as RB in IN the DT UN NP and CC the DT typing VVG staff NN , , on IN the DT one CD hand NN , , and CC the DT operating NN expenses NNS paper NN , , computer NN use NN and CC depreciation NN , , office NN maintenance NN , , etc FW . SENT . SENT A DT fact NN generally RB unknown JJ outside NN of IN translation NN units NNS is VBZ that IN a DT translator NN has VHZ often RB to TO do VV some DT kind NN of IN detective NN work NN . SENT In IN many JJ cases NNS , , one CD word NN includes VVZ several JJ items NNS of IN information NN , , but CC the DT meanings NNS so RB amalgamated VVD differ VV from IN one CD language NN to TO the DT other JJ . SENT For IN instance NN , , the DT words NNS his PP$ secretary NN , , in IN English NP , , gives VVZ us PP information NN on IN the DT boss's JJ sex NN , , but CC not RB on IN the DT secretary's NNS . SENT In IN French JJ , , it's JJ the DT opposite NN . SENT Son NN secr NN taire NN means VVZ his PP$ or CC her PP$ male JJ secretary NN . SENT if IN the DT secretary NN is VBZ a DT woman NN , , it PP will MD be VB sa NP secr NN taire NN , , but CC French NP gives VVZ no DT clue NN as RB to TO whether IN it PP is VBZ the DT secretary NN of IN a DT man NN or CC of IN a DT woman NN . SENT A DT translator NN who WP has VHZ to TO render VV into IN another DT language NN the DT words NNS his PP$ secretary NN has VHZ to TO find VV out RP the DT secretary's JJ sex NN . SENT Names NNS may MD help VV , , but CC not RB always RB , , especially RB when WRB the DT text NN refers VVZ to TO persons NNS from IN a DT distant JJ culture NN . SENT Is VBZ Secretary NP Tan NP Buting NP , , a DT Chinese NP , , a DT man NN or CC a DT woman NN . SENT You PP cannot NN translate VV those DT few JJ words NNS into IN Spanish JJ , , French JJ , , Italian JJ and CC many JJ other JJ languages NNS without IN doing VVG some DT research NN to TO get VV an DT answer NN to TO the DT question NN . SENT In IN many JJ cultures NNS , , assigning VVG a DT wrong JJ sex NN to TO a DT person NN may MD be VB felt VVN as IN unacceptably RB offensive JJ . SENT Incidentally RB , , this DT detective NN work NN imposed VVN on IN translators NNS is VBZ one CD of IN the DT reason NN why WRB computers NNS cannot NN do VVP the DT job NN . SENT Ninety CD percent NN of IN a DT translator's NNS time NN are VBP devoted VVN to TO solving VVG problems NNS that WDT have VHP little RB to TO do VV with IN what WP can MD be VB automated VVN . SENT What WP can MD be VB done VVN by IN a DT computer NN can MD be VB done VVN by IN a DT human JJ translator NN in IN very RB little JJ time NN , , say VVP ten CD percent NN of IN his PP$ or CC her PP$ working JJ day NN . SENT But CC the DT research NN that IN accurate JJ translation NN demands NNS requires VVZ much JJ creativity NN and CC ingenuity NN that WDT are VBP beyond IN the DT capabilities NNS of IN the DT best JJS software NN network NN of IN artificial JJ intelligence NN . SENT The DT documents NNS that WDT have VHP to TO be VB translated VVN belong VVP to TO the DT most RBS diverse JJ categories NNS . SENT They PP include VVP , , for IN instance NN , , correspondence NN . SENT In IN the DT plurilingual JJ institutions NNS , , many JJ letters NNS are VBP received VVN in IN a DT language NN that WDT is VBZ not RB understandable JJ for IN the DT addressee NN or CC the DT staff NN member NN who WP has VHZ to TO reply VV . SENT Other JJ documents NNS that WDT require VVP translation NN are VBP . SENT a DT basic JJ documents NNS , , such JJ as IN , , in IN the DT European NP Union NP , , the DT Treaty NP of IN Maastricht NP . SENT this DT category NN includes VVZ all PDT the DT texts NNS having VHG legal JJ implications NNS which WDT govern VVP the DT life NN of IN the DT institution NN . SENT b SYM periodic JJ reports NNS for IN instance NN , , in IN the DT UN NP or CC the DT European JJ institutions NNS , , on IN the DT economic JJ , , social JJ , , cultural JJ , , educational JJ and CC health NN situation NN . SENT c SYM studies NNS commissioned VVN to TO this DT or CC that DT secretariat NN by IN higher JJR bodies NNS . SENT d SYM progress NN reports NNS on IN projects NNS that WDT have VHP been VBN undertaken VVN . SENT e SYM minutes NNS and CC records NNS of IN meetings NNS , , as RB well RB as IN resolutions NNS adopted VVN by IN organs NNS with IN deciding VVG power NN . SENT f SYM working JJ papers NNS for IN various JJ committees NNS , , panels NNS , , working VVG groups NNS , , etc FW . SENT The DT cost NN of IN producing VVG the DT documents NNS in IN all DT working VVG languages NNS depends VVZ on IN the DT translators NNS productivity NN . SENT Unfortunately RB , , it PP is VBZ practically RB impossible JJ to TO get VV an DT idea NN of IN the DT average JJ production NN , , since IN statistics NNS are VBP generally RB configured VVN in IN a DT format NN designed VVN to TO conceal VV the DT low JJ productivity NN of IN the DT translation NN units NNS . SENT For IN instance NN , , a DT 50 CD page NN report NN sent VVD to TO the DT translation NN unit NN with IN a DT request NN to TO make VV ten CD one CD word NN corrections NNS is VBZ recorded VVN on IN the DT receiving VVG log NN with IN the DT total NN of IN pages NNS . SENT The DT work NN can MD be VB done VVN in IN a DT few JJ minutes NNS , , but CC the DT translation NN office NN will MD record VV it PP as IN a DT 50 CD page NN document NN . SENT Such JJ cheating NN is VBZ probably RB inevitable JJ , , in IN so RB far RB as IN no DT institution NN , , at IN any DT level NN , , has VHZ an DT interest NN in IN letting VVG the DT outside JJ world NN know VVP exactly RB how WRB much JJ the DT use NN of IN many JJ languages NNS costs NNS . SENT A DT secretary NN who WP inflates VVZ the DT figures NNS in IN such PDT a DT way NN will MD never RB be VB blamed VVN . SENT A DT conscientious JJ translator NN cannot NN translate VVP more JJR than IN five CD or CC six CD double JJ space NN A DT 4 CD pages NNS per IN day NN . SENT At IN the DT UN NP , , the DT fastest JJS translation NN unit NN , , the DT English NP one CD , , has VHZ an DT average JJ productivity NN , , per IN translator NN , , of IN 2331 CD words NNS per IN day NN . SENT The DT slowest JJS are VBP the DT Chinese JJ , , with IN an DT average JJ daily JJ productivity NN of IN 843 CD words NNS . SENT The DT medium NN one NN is VBZ the DT French JJ unit NN , , with IN an DT average NN of IN 1517 CD words NNS . SENT English JJ unit NN means VVZ . SENT those DT who WP translate VVP from IN other JJ languages NNS into IN English NP . SENT x SYM words NNS means VVZ so RB many JJ words NNS in IN the DT original JJ text NN . SENT 3 LS , , table NN 9 CD . SENT The DT average NN of IN 7000 CD words NNS a DT day NN per IN translator NN at IN the DT Council NP of IN Ministers NPS of IN the DT European NP Union NP , , quoted VVN in IN the DT press NN 4 CD , , p NN . SENT 6 CD , , is VBZ not RB credible JJ for IN anybody NN who WP has VHZ been VBN an DT insider NN in IN the DT translation NN world NN . SENT Such PDT a DT figure NN is VBZ possible JJ only RB at IN a DT very RB low JJ qualitative JJ level NN , , so RB low JJ that IN if IN it PP were VBD true JJ , , the DT money NN earmarked VVN for IN such JJ translation NN would MD be VB a DT complete JJ waste NN . SENT However RB , , facts NNS point VVP to TO this DT being NN a DT possibility NN . SENT The DT first JJ version NN of IN the DT Treaty NP of IN Maastricht NP a DT lengthy JJ document NN 253 CD pages NNS , , and CC a DT very RB important JJ one NN since IN it PP defined VVD the DT organization NN of IN the DT European NP Union NP and CC all DT citizens NNS of IN the DT member NN countries NNS were VBD called VVN upon RP to TO determine VV by IN a DT vote NN if IN they PP approved VVD or CC rejected VVD it PP had VHD to TO be VB withdrawn VVN from IN all DT bookstores NNS and CC libraries NNS because IN its PP$ content NN varied VVN from IN one CD language NN to TO the DT next JJ . SENT The DT text NN had VHD to TO be VB fully RB retranslated VVN and CC reprinted VVN . SENT The DT cost NN of IN the DT effort NN involved VVN in IN doing VVG twice RB the DT same JJ work NN has VHZ never RB been VBN publicly RB stated VVN . SENT Translation NN is VBZ expensive JJ . SENT In IN the DT UN NP system NN , , every DT thousand CD words NNS in IN an DT original JJ text NN , , in IN 1978 CD I NN haven't NN been VBN able JJ to TO find VV more JJR recent JJ figures NNS , , cost VVN US NP 1698 CD for IN translation NN in IN seven CD languages NNS , , or CC more JJR than IN a DT dollar NN and CC fifty CD cents NNS per IN word NN . SENT Such PDT a DT sum NN seems VVZ more RBR realistic JJ than IN the DT figure NN of IN 36 CD cents NNS a DT word NN given VVN for IN the DT European NP Union NP . SENT Apparently RB , , the DT European NP Union NP translates VVZ daily RB 3 CD , , 150 CD , , 000 CD words NNS , , which WDT means VVZ that DT translation NN costs VVZ there RB amount VV to TO US NP 1 CD , , 134 CD , , 000 CD per IN day NN . SENT 4 CD g NN Waiting VVG time NN for IN a DT document NN In IN a DT multilingual JJ organization NN , , documents NNS cannot NN be VB immediately RB available JJ in IN all DT working VVG languages NNS . SENT The DT time NN factor NN should MD also RB be VB included VVN in IN the DT analysis NN . SENT In IN the DT UN NP system NN , , preparing VVG a DT 25 CD page NN single JJ spaced VVN document NN 14 CD , , 000 CD words NNS in IN the DT six CD official JJ languages NNS requires VVZ 63 CD , , 9 CD translator NN workdays NNS , , plus CC 22 CD , , 9 CD workdays NNS for IN revision NN 3 CD , , table NN 9 CD . SENT If IN typing VVG time NN is VBZ included VVN , , the DT total NN becomes VVZ 98 CD , , 8 CD workdays NNS . SENT This DT does VVZ not RB mean VV that IN it PP takes VVZ a DT hundred CD days NNS for IN the DT document NN to TO be VB ready JJ . SENT translators NNS in IN different JJ languages NNS work VVP simultaneously RB , , and CC the DT urgent JJ texts NNS are VBP divided VVN among IN translators NNS , , as RB is VBZ also RB done VVN with IN a DT very RB long JJ text NN . SENT The DT man NN in IN the DT street NN is VBZ not RB aware JJ of IN how WRB much JJ effort NN is VBZ invested VVN in IN a DT result NN which WDT is VBZ far RB from IN being VBG impressive JJ . SENT a DT hundred CD workdays NNS to TO communicate VV , , often RB imperfectly RB , , the DT contents NNS of IN just RB 25 CD pages NNS , , is VBZ this DT justifiable JJ . SENT No DT wonder NN that IN translation NN units NNS are VBP reluctant JJ to TO present VV honest JJ statistics NNS . SENT According VVG to TO our PP$ UN NP source NN 3 CD , , if IN the DT text NN is VBZ not RB urgent JJ , , it PP takes VVZ 24 CD days NNS for IN it PP to TO be VB available JJ in IN all DT languages NNS . SENT If IN it PP is VBZ urgent JJ and CC receives VVZ a DT high JJ degree NN of IN priority NN , , it PP can MD be VB ready JJ in IN about RB six CD days NNS . SENT In IN the DT multinational JJ and CC Esperanto NN systems NNS a DT document NN is VBZ available JJ as RB soon RB as IN it PP is VBZ written VVN , , since IN there EX is VBZ no DT need NN to TO have VH it PP in IN any DT other JJ language NN than IN the DT original JJ . SENT h NN Loss NN and CC distortion NN Communication NP occurs VVZ only RB when WRB the DT listener NN of IN a DT speech NN or CC the DT reader NN of IN a DT document NN accurately RB takes VVZ in IN the DT meaning NN of IN the DT speaker NN or CC author NN . SENT Passing VVG from IN one CD language NN to TO another DT implies VVZ a DT difference NN between IN what WP the DT original NN purports VVZ to TO convey VV and CC what WP is VBZ actually RB transmitted VVN . SENT In IN the DT multinational JJ and CC Esperanto NN systems NNS , , there EX is VBZ no DT risk NN of IN loss NN or CC distortion NN , , since IN listeners NNS and CC readers NNS deal VVP only RB with IN originals NNS . SENT If IN doubts NNS or CC misunderstandings NNS appear VVP , , they PP are VBP not RB due JJ to TO the DT system NN , , but CC to TO the DT language NN level NN of IN the DT individuals NNS involved VVD . SENT The DT situation NN is VBZ quite RB different JJ with IN the DT UN NP and CC the DT European JJ Union NP systems NNS , , which WDT rely VVP heavily RB on IN translation NN and CC interpretation NN . SENT As RB has VHZ been VBN noted VVN above IN , , in IN the DT relay NN system NN of IN simultaneous JJ interpretation NN the DT loss NN of IN information NN can MD reach VV 50 CD . SENT But CC , , even RB if IN the DT transition NN from IN the DT source NN to TO the DT target NN language NN is VBZ direct JJ , , a DT loss NN of IN 10 CD and CC a DT distortion NN of IN 2 CD or CC 3 CD are VBP considered VVN normal JJ . SENT The DT conditions NNS of IN simultaneous JJ interpretation NN are VBP such JJ that IN it PP is VBZ impossible JJ to TO transmit VV a DT speech NN in IN another DT language NN without IN gaps NNS and CC errors NNS while IN it PP is VBZ being VBG delivered VVN . SENT The DT interpreter NN must MD not RB only RB have VH a DT good JJ delivery NN , , a DT perfect JJ mastery NN of IN both DT languages NNS , , a DT quick JJ mind NN and CC sharp JJ hearing NN , , he PP must MD also RB be VB fairly RB familiar JJ with IN the DT subject NN in IN order NN to TO repeat VV in IN the DT target NN language NN everything NN said VVD in IN the DT original JJ using VVG the DT appropriate JJ technical JJ terminology NN and CC without IN dropping VVG important JJ shades NNS of IN meaning NN . SENT Such PDT a DT combination NN of IN deep JJ linguistic JJ competence NN and CC vast JJ technical JJ knowledge NN can MD rarely RB be VB found VVN . SENT Hence RB the DT large JJ number NN of IN inaccurate JJ interpreters NNS . SENT Moreover RB , , the DT expansion NN in IN recent JJ years NNS of IN multilingual JJ conferences NNS both CC within IN the DT United NP Nations NPS system NN and CC outside IN it PP , , and CC their PP$ growing VVG complexity NN e NN . SENT g NN . SENT the DT increasing VVG tendency NN to TO form VV ad FW hoc FW working JJ groups NNS , , drafting VVG committees NNS , , etc FW . SENT , , needing VVG language NN services NNS a DT single JJ conference NN can MD generate VV half PDT a DT dozen NN or CC more JJR such JJ auxiliary JJ bodies NNS , , several JJ or CC even RB all DT of IN which WDT may MD meet VV concurrently RB , , has VHZ led VVN to TO an DT increase NN in IN the DT demand NN for IN language NN staff NN and CC thus RB aggravated VVN the DT shortage NN . SENT With IN varying VVG degree NN of IN emphasis NN , , the DT organizations NNS covered VVN in IN this DT study NN are VBP unanimous JJ in IN stating VVG that IN it PP has VHZ become VVN increasingly RB difficult JJ in IN recent JJ years NNS to TO recruit VV competent JJ language NN staff NN . SENT One CD large JJ agency NN states NNS that IN it PP has VHZ always RB been VBN difficult JJ to TO find VV enough JJ qualified JJ language NN staff NN . SENT in IN the DT last JJ few JJ years NNS , , however RB , , with IN the DT increasing VVG number NN of IN meetings NNS in IN all PDT the DT organizations NNS and CC the DT lack NN of IN co NP ordination NN between IN these DT organizations NNS , , the DT problem NN has VHZ often RB been VBN how JJ to TO find VV enough JJ interpreters NNS or CC conference NN translators NNS , , regardless RB of IN their PP$ quality NN . SENT 1 LS , , par NN . SENT 89 CD . SENT Several JJ organizations NNS stress VVP the DT linguistic JJ difficulties NNS arising VVG from IN the DT specialized JJ nature NN of IN many JJ of IN the DT subjects NNS discussed VVN at IN meetings NNS in IN the DT United NP Nations NPS system NN . SENT One CD of IN them PP writes VVZ that IN it PP seems VVZ that IN in IN a DT technical JJ organization NN . SENT . SENT . SENT texts NNS become VVP increasingly RB specialized JJ and CC difficult JJ on IN account NN of IN constantly RB developing VVG technique NN . SENT Even RB in IN a DT non JJ technical JJ context NN , , problems NNS of IN terminology NN are VBP constantly RB arising VVG , , and CC require VV highly RB skilled JJ staff NN to TO deal VV with IN them PP . SENT These DT factors NNS add VVP to TO the DT difficulty NN of IN acquiring VVG competent JJ language NN staff NN . SENT 1 LS , , par NN . SENT 94 CD . SENT The DT distortions NNS and CC errors NNS found VVD in IN the DT simultaneous JJ interpretation NN of IN speeches NNS and CC interventions NNS have VHP their PP$ equivalents NNS in IN written JJ translation NN as IN well RB , , if IN only RB because IN translators NNS often RB work VVP under IN the DT pressure NN of IN urgency NN . SENT The DT above JJ story NN on IN the DT Treaty NP of IN Maastricht NP shows VVZ that IN even JJ texts NNS of IN paramount JJ importance NN are VBP not RB protected VVN against IN inaccurate JJ translation NN . SENT The DT United NP Nations NPS Charter NP provides VVZ another DT example NN . SENT In IN English NP , , article NN 33 CD applies VVZ to TO any DT dispute NN , , the DT continuation NN of IN which WDT is VBZ likely JJ to TO endanger VV the DT maintenance NN of IN international JJ peace NN and CC security NN , , but CC in IN French JJ to TO tout VV diff NN rend VV dont JJ la NP prolongation NN est NP susceptible JJ de NP menacer NN le DT maintien NN de FW la FW paix NN et FW de FW la FW s PP curit NP internationals NNS , , just RB as RB in IN Spanish NP . SENT una NP controversia NP cuya NP continuaci NP n NN sea NN susceptible JJ de NP poner NN en IN peligro NN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT Whereas IN the DT French JJ and CC Spanish JJ texts NNS , , which WDT have VHP the DT same JJ legal JJ force NN they PP are VBP equally RB authentic JJ , , states VVZ the DT last JJ article NN consider VV a DT simple JJ possibility NN , , the DT English JJ version NN requires VVZ a DT probability NN , , which WDT is VBZ quite RB different JJ . SENT The DT shade NN of IN meaning NN is VBZ important JJ since IN this DT article NN defines VVZ whether IN or CC not RB the DT Security NP Council NP should MD get VV involved VVN . SENT The DT other JJ authentic JJ texts NNS do VVP not RB clarify VV the DT Security NP Council's NP task NN . SENT the DT Russian NP uses VVZ the DT words NNS moglo NN by IN , , could MD endanger VV peace NN and CC security NN and CC the DT Chinese JJ zuyi NN , , sufficient JJ to TO endanger VV them PP . SENT The DT various JJ versions NNS of IN this DT article NN run VV the DT gamut NN from IN sufficient JJ to TO probable JJ passing NN through IN possible JJ . SENT If IN important JJ legal JJ texts NNS contain VVP such JJ erroneous JJ translations NNS , , how WRB much RB more RBR frequently RB do VV such JJ mistakes NNS appear VVP in IN texts NNS without IN any DT particular JJ importance NN . SENT Such JJ inaccuracies NNS must MD be VB viewed VVN against IN the DT background NN or CC the DT extremely RB high JJ cost NN of IN translation NN . SENT A DT document NN of IN the DT European NP Union NP discussed VVD at IN some DT point NN , , in IN its PP$ French JJ version NN , , les FW avions NP sans IN pilote NP qui NP prennent NN pour VVP cibles NN les FW centrales NNS nucl JJ aires NP which WDT means VVZ pilotless JJ aircrafts NNS which WDT take VVP as IN targets NNS nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS . SENT The DT original NN referred VVD to TO airplanes NNS flying VVG by IN automatic JJ pilot NN over IN nuclear JJ power NN plants NNS . SENT 5 LS Such PDT a DT potentially RB dangerous JJ error NN may MD be VB due JJ to TO the DT relay NN system NN . SENT As IN a DT matter NN of IN fact NN , , such PDT a DT system NN , , mentioned VVN above IN only RB in IN the DT context NN of IN simultaneous JJ interpretation NN , , also RB applies VVZ to TO written VVN translations NNS . SENT A DT translation NN from IN a DT Greek JJ or CC Finnish JJ text NN into IN Danish JJ or CC Portuguese JJ is VBZ often RB , , actually RB , , a DT translation NN from IN its PP$ English NP or CC its PP$ French JJ version NN . SENT Such PDT a DT procedure NN will MD become VV ever RB more RBR frequent JJ when WRB languages NNS such JJ as IN Hungarian JJ , , Estonian JJ and CC Czech JJ are VBP introduced VVN , , which WDT will MD inevitably RB increase VV the DT proportion NN of IN inaccurate JJ translations NNS . SENT The DT cost NN effectiveness NN ratio NN evolves VVZ in IN an DT unfavorable JJ way NN with IN the DT multiplication NN of IN languages NNS . SENT the DT more JJR languages NNS in IN use NN , , the DT more RBR costly JJ the DT translation NN and CC the DT lower JJR its PP$ quality NN . SENT i NP Frequency NN and CC importance NN of IN language NN handicap NN during IN sessions NNS The DT phrase NN language NN handicap NN refers VVZ to TO the DT sum NN of IN traits NNS of IN the DT language NN being VBG used VVN which WDT interfere VV with IN fluent JJ oral JJ or CC written JJ expression NN . SENT The DT greater JJR the DT language NN handicap NN , , the DT less RBR comfortable JJ the DT person NN feels VVZ in IN the DT language NN he PP or CC she PP has VHZ to TO use VV . SENT Those DT who WP express VVP themselves PP in IN their PP$ mother NN tongue NN , , obviously RB , , suffer VVP no DT language NN handicap NN . SENT But CC when WRB speakers NNS or CC writers NNS do VVP not RB have VH complete JJ command NN over IN the DT language NN , , they PP may MD have VH a DT very RB clear JJ idea NN of IN what WP they PP want VVP to TO convey VV without IN being VBG able JJ to TO transmit VV the DT idea NN with IN the DT clarity NN and CC convincing JJ power NN they PP aim VVP at IN , , because IN they PP do VVP not RB find VV the DT correct JJ words NNS right RB away RB , , they PP use VVP less JJR appropriate JJ ones NNS that WDT make VVP them PP feel VVP grammatically RB more RBR secure JJ , , they PP express VVP themselves PP in IN a DT less RBR refined JJ language NN than IN if IN they PP could MD use VV their PP$ own JJ , , they PP give VVP up RP rendering VVG delicate JJ nuances NNS which WDT may MD be VB quite RB important JJ , , and CC their PP$ speeches NNS or CC texts NNS have VHP much RB less JJR force NN than IN they PP would MD have VH were VBD they PP allowed VVN to TO use VV their PP$ mother NN tongue NN . SENT Further RBR , , mispronunciation NN can MD cause VV confusion NN or CC make VV the DT speaker NN sound NN ridiculous JJ for IN instance NN , , saying VVG My PP$ Government NN sinks VVZ instead RB of IN My PP$ Government NN thinks VVZ with IN all PDT the DT negative JJ ensuing VVG consequences NNS . SENT Such PDT a DT flaw NN is VBZ a DT result NN of IN a DT language NN handicap NN which WDT , , by IN its PP$ very JJ nature NN , , is VBZ spared VVN to TO those DT who WP can MD use VV their PP$ mother NN tongue NN . SENT The DT European NP Parliament NP has VHZ recognized VVN the DT enormous JJ handicap NN imposed VVN on IN anybody NN deprived VVN of IN the DT right NN to TO use VV his PP$ own JJ language NN . SENT Whoever WP has VHZ struggled VVN to TO learn VV a DT foreign JJ language NN knows VVZ that IN a DT true JJ capacity NN to TO speak VV one PP is VBZ a DT rare JJ occurrence NN . SENT As IN a DT rule NN , , the DT mother NN tongue NN is VBZ the DT only JJ one NN which WDT can MD be VB mastered VVN with IN all PDT its PP$ subtlety NN . SENT There EX is VBZ no DT doubt NN that IN one PP finds VVZ oneself PP politically RB most RBS forceful JJ when WRB expressing VVG oneself PP in IN one's JJ own JJ language NN . SENT Using VVG the DT mother NN tongue NN is VBZ to TO enjoy VV an DT advantage NN over IN those DT who WP willingly RB or CC not RB are VBP burdened VVN with IN a DT language NN which WDT is VBZ not RB their PP$ own JJ . SENT 6 CD , , p NN . SENT 10 CD . SENT It PP is VBZ thus RB easy JJ to TO understand VV why WRB so RB many JJ states NNS reacted VVD angrily RB when WRB , , on IN December NP 14 CD , , 1994 CD , , the DT French NP Minister NP for IN European NP Affairs NPS , , Alain NP Lamassoure NP , , announced VVN that IN France NP would MD use VV its PP$ term NN as IN president NN to TO propose VV a DT policy NN of IN five CD working VVG languages NNS . SENT The DT Greek JJ Government NN , , for IN example NN , , launched VVD a DT heated JJ protest NN , , while IN the DT Athenian JJ press NN accused VVN France NP of IN wanting VVG to TO create VV a DT two CD speed NN Europe NP also RB in IN the DT language NN field NN . SENT 5 CD Language NP handicap NN is VBZ the DT most RBS important JJ factor NN to TO take VV into IN account NN when WRB comparing VVG the DT various JJ alternatives NNS in IN language NN policy NN . SENT Such PDT a DT handicap NN especially RB affects VVZ the DT institutions NNS which WDT have VHP adopted VVN the DT UN NP system NN , , in IN which WDT the DT majority NN is VBZ deprived VVN of IN its PP$ right NN to TO use VV its PP$ native JJ tongue NN . SENT No DT language NN handicap NN exists VVZ at IN present NN in IN the DT European NP Union NP , , but CC if IN , , as IN many JJ suggest VVP , , the DT number NN of IN working VVG languages NNS is VBZ reduced VVN , , it PP will MD affect VV a DT certain JJ proportion NN of IN member NN states NNS . SENT Language NN handicap NN belongs VVZ to TO the DT field NN of IN neuropsychology NN . SENT It PP is VBZ the DT result NN of IN factors NNS interfering VVG with IN the DT regular JJ flow NN of IN nervous JJ energy NN in IN the DT brain NN . SENT All DT languages NNS represent VVP a DT network NN of IN complex JJ programs NNS , , in IN the DT computerese JJ sense NN of IN the DT word NN . SENT Quite RB often RB a DT program NN is VBZ disturbed VVN by IN inhibitory JJ subprograms NNS which WDT prevent VVP them PP from IN running VVG smoothly RB . SENT If IN you PP ask VVP a DT random JJ sample NN of IN non JJ Anglo NP Saxons NNS who WP have VHP studied VVN English JJ for IN many JJ years NNS what WP the DT plural NN of IN sheep NN is VBZ , , you PP will MD discover VV that IN eight CD out IN of IN ten CD answer NN sheeps NNS . SENT The DT error NN comes VVZ from IN the DT fact NN that IN the DT word NN sheep NN should MD be VB linked VVN to TO a DT subprogram NN stating VVG . SENT in IN this DT case NN cancel VV the DT general JJ program NN plural NN s PP . SENT Assimilating VVG and CC maintaining VVG in IN operating VVG condition NN the DT vast JJ number NN of IN complex JJ subprograms NNS that WDT should MD be VB associated VVN to TO many JJ linguistic JJ items NNS for IN English JJ and CC most RBS other JJ languages NNS to TO be VB used VVN properly RB is VBZ beyond IN the DT capability NN of IN most JJS people NNS if IN it PP is VBZ not RB the DT language NN prevalent JJ in IN the DT environment NN . SENT This DT is VBZ the DT main JJ reason NN why WRB a DT minimum NN of IN 10 CD , , 000 CD hours NNS of IN study NN and CC practice NN are VBP needed VVN to TO possess VV any DT national JJ language NN . SENT If IN readers NNS doubt VVP the DT validity NN of IN that DT figure NN , , they PP may MD get VV a DT confirmation NN by IN observing VVG the DT language NN of IN a DT six CD or CC seven CD year NN old JJ child NN speaking VVG its PP$ mother NN tongue NN . SENT Even RB after IN some DT 10 CD , , 000 CD hours NNS of IN full JJ immersion NN in IN the DT language NN , , it PP will MD utter VV such JJ forms NNS as IN I PP comed JJ , , he PP falled VVD , , mouses VVZ , , foots VVZ , , when WRB I'll NP go VV , , it's NNS mines NNS , , etc FW . SENT It PP should MD be VB emphasized VVN that IN none NN of IN those DT errors NNS are VBP due JJ to TO intellectual JJ immaturity NN . SENT As IN a DT matter NN of IN fact NN , , the DT child NN is VBZ more RBR logical JJ than IN the DT official JJ language NN . SENT The DT flaws NNS are VBP due JJ to TO the DT fact NN that IN while IN the DT general JJ programs NNS are VBP operating VVG , , the DT subprograms NNS are VBP not RB . SENT They PP have VHP not RB yet RB been VBN installed VVN in IN the DT brain NN or CC they PP are VBP still RB unstable JJ or CC poorly RB connected VVN to TO the DT neurological JJ structures NNS activated VVN by IN linguistic JJ expression NN . SENT Ninety CD to TO ninety CD five CD percent NN of IN the DT time NN invested VVN in IN the DT study NN of IN a DT national JJ language NN are VBP devoted VVN to TO the DT effort NN needed VVD to TO transform VV the DT subprograms NNS into IN reflexes NNS . SENT As RB long RB as IN they PP do VVP not RB operate VV unconsciously RB , , without IN effort NN , , the DT language NN cannot NN be VB said VVN to TO be VB mastered VVN . SENT The DT brain NN tends VVZ to TO generalize VV spontaneously RB all DT linguistic JJ signs NNS it PP has VHZ perceived VVN . SENT So IN a DT child NN or CC a DT foreigner NN who WP has VHZ unconsciously RB registered VVN the DT regular JJ appearance NN of IN a DT final JJ s PP in IN the DT series NN yours NNS , , hers NNS , , ours JJ , , theirs PP will MD have VH the DT natural JJ reflex JJ to TO apply VV the DT same JJ pattern NN to TO the DT first JJ person NN singular NN . SENT he PP or CC she PP will MD say VV mines NNS . SENT For IN the DT correct JJ form NN to TO be VB introduced VVN , , a DT new JJ , , conditioned VVN reflex JJ , , has VHZ to TO override VV the DT natural JJ one CD . SENT A DT language NN which WDT lacks VVZ diverting VVG subprograms NNS and CC is VBZ only RB made VVN up RP of IN general JJ programs NNS for IN instance NN , , just RB one CD program NN for IN the DT plural NN , , just RB one CD program NN for IN the DT present JJ tense JJ of IN all DT verbs NNS , , just RB one CD program NN to TO derive VV an DT adjective NN from IN a DT noun NN , , and CC so RB on IN respects NNS without IN exception NN the DT natural JJ tendency NN to TO generalize VV linguistic JJ traits NNS . SENT As IN a DT result NN , , both DT acquisition NN and CC use NN of IN the DT language NN are VBP considerably RB easier JJR . SENT Esperanto NN is VBZ such PDT a DT language NN . SENT If IN it PP frees VVZ its PP$ user NN of IN language NN handicap NN , , it PP is VBZ also RB because IN it PP is VBZ extremely RB flexible JJ . SENT Thought NN has VHZ not RB to TO be VB channeled VVN into IN predetermined VVN patterns NNS . SENT To TO express VV the DT idea NN he PP thanks VVZ me PP , , the DT user NN of IN Esperanto NN can MD follow VV the DT English JJ word NN order NN li NP dankas NP min NP , , the DT German JJ structure NN li NP dankas NP al NP mi NN or CC the DT French JJ one CD li NP min NN dankas NNS . SENT A DT century NN of IN practice NN has VHZ proven VVN that IN this DT freedom NN enhances VVZ linguistic JJ comfort NN without IN hampering VVG mutual JJ comprehension NN . SENT A DT similar JJ freedom NN can MD be VB found VVN in IN the DT various JJ ways NNS a DT thought NN can MD be VB expressed VVN . SENT The DT idea NN he PP went VVD to TO the DT hotel NN by IN bus NN , , for IN instance NN , , can MD be VB expressed VVN in IN many JJ ways NNS that WDT have VHP no DT equivalent NN in IN other JJ languages NNS , , but CC which WDT are VBP immediately RB understandable JJ once IN you PP have VHP learned VVN the DT meaning NN of IN endings NNS and CC prepositions NNS . SENT li NP iris NN al NP la FW hotelo NN per IN buso NP , , li NP iris NN hotelen NP buse NP , , al NP la NP hotelo NP li NP busis NN , , li NP buse NP alhotelis NP , , etc FW . SENT The DT consequence NN of IN this DT freedom NN , , added VVD to TO the DT regularity NN of IN patterns NNS and CC the DT lack NN of IN exceptions NNS , , is VBZ that DT language NN handicap NN is VBZ practically RB never RB experienced VVN by IN the DT user NN of IN Esperanto NN . SENT This DT explains VVZ what WP Prof NP . SENT Pierre NP Janton NP observed VVD in IN his PP$ research NN on IN the DT language NN . SENT Although IN it PP is VBZ not RB a DT native JJ language NN , , it PP is VBZ not RB a DT foreign JJ language NN either RB . SENT A DT mature JJ user NN of IN Esperanto NN always RB feels VVZ it PP as IN his PP$ or CC her PP$ own JJ , , which WDT , , except IN for IN the DT rare JJ cases NNS of IN perfect JJ bilingualism NN , , cannot NN be VB said VVN of IN any DT other JJ language NN that WDT has VHZ had VHD to TO be VB learned VVN . SENT 7 CD As IN a DT result NN , , an DT observer NN at IN a DT meeting NN held VVN in IN Esperanto NN is VBZ immediately RB struck VVN by IN the DT fact NN that IN linguistic JJ handicap NN does VVZ not RB appear VV . SENT To TO the DT linguistic JJ and CC neurological JJ reasons NNS that WDT have VHP just RB been VBN explained VVN , , another DT factor NN , , a DT purely RB psychological JJ one NN , , has VHZ to TO be VB added VVN . SENT every DT speaker NN of IN Esperanto NN knows VVZ that IN the DT language NN is VBZ nobody's JJ mother NN tongue NN and CC that IN there EX is VBZ no DT linguistically RB superior JJ people NNS which WDT could MD say VV , , or CC think VVP . SENT this DT is VBZ right RB , , this DT is VBZ wrong JJ about IN the DT phrasing NN , , the DT grammar NN , , the DT vocabulary NN . SENT The DT speaker NN never RB feels VVZ inferior JJ for IN belonging VVG to TO an DT ethnic JJ group NN different JJ from IN the DT group NN which WDT has VHZ defined VVN the DT language NN standards NNS . SENT This DT represents VVZ an DT enormous JJ contrast NN with IN the DT multinational JJ and CC UN NP systems NNS , , in IN which WDT those DT who WP do VVP not RB have VH the DT right JJ mother NN tongue NN cannot NN but CC feel VV in IN some DT way NN inferior JJ unless IN they PP are VBP so RB conceited JJ that IN they PP have VHP no DT idea NN of IN their PP$ actual JJ , , possibly RB low JJ , , level NN , , which WDT is VBZ not RB too RB rare JJ an DT occurrence NN . SENT In IN sessions NNS held VVN in IN Esperanto NN , , speakers NNS express VVP themselves PP freely RB and CC no DT correlation NN can MD be VB found VVN between IN the DT nature NN of IN the DT mother NN tongue NN and CC the DT frequency NN with IN which WDT participants NNS ask VVP for IN the DT floor NN . SENT Therefore RB although IN the DT language NN has VHZ been VBN learned VVN , , the DT observer NN has VHZ the DT feeling NN of IN a DT human JJ environment NN in IN which WDT everybody NN speaks VVZ their PP$ mother NN tongue NN . SENT This DT is VBZ the DT aspect NN which WDT most JJS distinguishes VVZ the DT Esperanto NN system NN from IN the DT other JJ three CD . SENT j NN Language NP handicap NN in IN reading VVG Reading NN documents NNS is VBZ an DT appreciable JJ part NN of IN any DT international JJ activity NN calling VVG for IN meetings NNS and CC discussions NNS . SENT There EX is VBZ a DT great JJ difference NN between IN reading VVG and CC listening VVG as RB far RB as IN comprehension NN is VBZ concerned VVN . SENT The DT figures NNS produced VVN in IN the DT table NN below IN for IN this DT criterion NN represent VVP an DT average NN . SENT this DT is VBZ the DT only JJ way NN to TO cope VV with IN the DT large JJ individual JJ variations NNS in IN understanding VVG the DT language NN in IN which WDT the DT participants NNS to TO the DT session NN receive VV their PP$ documents NNS . SENT In IN the DT UN NP system NN many JJ delegates NNS have VHP access NN to TO documents NNS in IN a DT language NN they PP can MD read VV without IN great JJ difficulty NN , , even RB if IN they PP speak VVP it PP poorly RB . SENT The DT reader NN may MD be VB surprised VVN to TO realize VV that IN in IN the DT table NN presented VVN below IN the DT handicap NN for IN reading NN comprehension NN is VBZ higher JJR for IN the DT multinational JJ system NN than IN for IN the DT UN NP . SENT This DT reflects VVZ the DT results NNS of IN studies NNS which WDT have VHP shown VVN that IN English's JJ inherent JJ ambiguity NN often RB gives VVZ rise NN to TO miscomprehension NN . SENT For IN example NN , , there EX is VBZ nothing NN extraordinary JJ in IN understanding VVG Japanese JJ encephalitis NN vaccine NN as IN meaning VVG an DT encephalitis NN vaccine NN produced VVN in IN Japan NP whereas IN it PP refers VVZ to TO a DT vaccine NN produced VVD anywhere RB to TO protect VV from IN the DT specific JJ disease NN called VVD Japanese JJ encephalitis NN . SENT In IN Esperanto NN the DT other JJ monolingual JJ system NN among IN those DT currently RB in IN use VV the DT expression NN does VVZ not RB require VV more JJR syllables NNS , , but CC it PP avoids VVZ the DT ambiguity NN . SENT japana NN encefalit NN vakcino NN and CC japan JJ encefalita NN vakcino NN clearly RB indicate VVP what WP refers VVZ to TO what WP . SENT The DT speed NN with IN which WDT English NP evolves VVZ , , along RB with IN a DT tendency NN of IN its PP$ writers NNS to TO use VV slang NN expressions NNS even RB in IN political JJ and CC technical JJ texts NNS , , creates VVZ problems NNS for IN speakers NNS of IN other JJ languages NNS . SENT In IN a DT recent JJ study NN 80 CD of IN those DT interviewed VVN , , while IN frequently RB using VVG English JJ in IN their PP$ professional JJ life NN , , could MD not RB understand VV the DT phrase NN Business NN class NN is VBZ a DT tough JJ act NN to TO follow VV in IN an DT article NN from IN the DT International NP Herald NP Tribune NP about IN the DT general JJ tendency NN of IN air NN travelers NNS to TO choose VV first JJ class NN less RBR often RB . SENT k NN Limitations NNS and CC annoyances NNS This DT study NN considers VVZ as IN limitations NNS all RB the DT factors NNS depending VVG on IN the DT language NN system NN in IN use NN which WDT limit VVP the DT freedom NN to TO choose VV the DT places NNS , , means NNS and CC times NNS in IN which WDT communication NN can MD occur VV . SENT For IN example NN , , the DT UN NP and CC European NP Union NP systems NNS require VVP conference NN rooms NNS equipped VVN for IN simultaneous JJ interpretation NN , , and CC restrict VV the DT discussions NNS to TO the DT times NNS when WRB the DT interpreters NNS and CC a DT technician NN are VBP available JJ , , whereas IN the DT multinational JJ and CC Esperanto NN systems NNS allow VVP discussions NNS to TO take VV place NN anywhere RB as RB well RB in IN a DT restaurant NN or CC a DT hunting NN lodge VV as RB in IN a DT congress NN palace NN and CC at IN any DT time NN , , even RB when WRB there EX is VBZ a DT power NN failure NN . SENT When WRB a DT UN NP body NN or CC a DT similar JJ institution NN accepts VVZ a DT government's JJ invitation NN to TO meet VV somewhere RB in IN the DT latter's JJ country NN , , away RB from IN headquarters NN , , it PP must MD cope VV with IN a DT substantial JJ increase NN in IN costs NNS and CC complications NNS . SENT The DT costs NNS caused VVN by IN the DT interpreters NNS and CC translators NNS traveling VVG , , lodging NN and CC subsistence NN are VBP considerable JJ for IN a DT large JJ conference NN , , as RB well RB as IN the DT costs NNS incurred VVN to TO produce VV the DT documents NNS , , especially RB when WRB languages NNS like IN Chinese NP and CC Arabic NP are VBP included VVN . SENT The DT feeling NN of IN being VBG at IN ease NN , , of IN not RB risking VVG embarrassment NN , , of IN enjoying VVG conditions NNS that WDT enable VVP the DT work NN to TO be VB carried VVN out RP smoothly RB , , in IN a DT pleasant JJ atmosphere NN , , is VBZ worth IN being VBG considered VVN , , because IN it PP contributes VVZ to TO a DT large JJ extent NN to TO the DT success NN of IN the DT activities NNS . SENT The DT word NN annoyances NNS , , in IN this DT paper NN , , refers VVZ to TO all PDT the DT factors NNS that WDT thwart VV that DT feeling NN . SENT Many JJ participants NNS in IN international JJ congresses NNS and CC conferences NNS find VVP the DT need NN to TO constantly RB wear VV earphones NNS and CC to TO listen VV to TO a DT voice NN different JJ from IN the DT speakers NNS to TO be VB most RBS unpleasant JJ . SENT Nervous JJ fatigue NN is VBZ worse JJR in IN a DT session NN with IN simultaneous JJ interpretation NN than IN in IN a DT monolingual JJ one NN . SENT However RB , , in IN a DT meeting NN which WDT uses VVZ only RB one CD language NN , , annoyance NN resulting VVG in IN increased JJ tiredness NN can MD also RB appear VV . SENT it PP is VBZ then RB linked VVN to TO the DT necessity NN to TO follow VV , , and CC to TO take VV part NN in IN , , a DT debate NN which WDT is VBZ held VVN in IN a DT language NN not RB completely RB mastered VVN by IN the DT person NN concerned VVN . SENT Foreign JJ pronunciation NN may MD interfere VV with IN immediate JJ comprehension NN and CC demand VV a DT greater JJR effort NN to TO follow VV the DT discussion NN . SENT l NN Probable JJ increase NN in IN disadvantages NNS over IN the DT next JJ twenty CD years NNS By IN their PP$ very JJ nature NN , , the DT multinational JJ and CC Esperanto NN systems NNS are VBP not RB exposed VVN to TO the DT risk NN that IN disadvantages NNS may MD increase VV . SENT The DT situation NN is VBZ quite RB different JJ for IN the DT multilingual JJ institutions NNS . SENT None NN of IN them PP has VHZ taken VVN at IN the DT outset NN a DT firm NN decision NN never RB to TO add VV new JJ languages NNS to TO the DT first JJ ones NNS they PP adopted VVD . SENT In IN that DT respect NN they PP differ VVP widely RB from IN countries NNS where WRB two CD or CC more JJR languages NNS have VHP an DT official JJ status NN . SENT The DT more JJR languages NNS are VBP introduced VVN , , the DT more RBR acute JJ the DT problems NNS become VVP . SENT Adding VVG one CD language NN is VBZ much RB more RBR than IN adding VVG a DT unit NN . SENT it PP is VBZ multiplying VVG the DT language NN combinations NNS for IN which WDT translation NN and CC interpretation NN must MD be VB provided VVN . SENT That IN number NN results NNS from IN the DT formula NN N NP N NP 1 CD . SENT If IN nine CD languages NNS are VBP used VVN , , 72 CD combinations NNS must MD be VB accommodated VVN . SENT if IN 15 CD for IN instance NN the DT present JJ eleven NN languages NNS used VVN by IN the DT European NP Union NP plus CC Hungarian NP , , Czech NP , , Slovenian JJ and CC Estonian JJ 210 CD language NN combinations NNS will MD have VH to TO be VB taken VVN into IN account NN , , as RB well RB at IN the DT spoken VVN level NN as IN at IN the DT level NN of IN written JJ documents NNS . SENT The DT aggravation NN of IN disadvantages NNS concerns NNS essentially RB the DT European NP Union NP , , which WDT has VHZ to TO face VV a DT daunting JJ dilemma NN . SENT guarantee NN democracy NN , , at IN the DT cost NN of IN an DT increase NN in IN material NN complications NNS and CC budget NN problems NNS extremely RB difficult JJ to TO bear VV , , or CC ensure VV a DT more RBR normal JJ working VVG of IN all PDT the DT bodies NNS involved VVN , , but CC achievable JJ only RB at IN the DT expense NN of IN democracy NN . SENT From IN the DT outset NN , , the DT UN NP and CC related JJ organizations NNS have VHP followed VVN a DT similar JJ path NN , , accepting VVG a DT gradual JJ increase NN in IN the DT number NN of IN working VVG languages NNS . SENT With IN each DT new JJ language NN the DT functioning NN of IN the DT institutions NNS has VHZ become VVN more RBR troublesome JJ . SENT The DT trend NN is VBZ still RB active JJ . SENT many JJ are VBP calling VVG for IN the DT broadening VVG of IN the DT use NN of IN German JJ , , already RB partially RB used VVN as IN a DT working VVG language NN , , and CC a DT highly RB active JJ lobby NN has VHZ been VBN pushing VVG to TO obtain VV official JJ status NN for IN Portuguese JJ , , Hindi JJ and CC Japanese JJ . SENT m NN Terminology NN Terminology NN problems NNS should MD have VH been VBN included VVN among IN the DT criteria NNS , , but CC it PP turned VVD out RP to TO be VB impossible JJ , , with IN the DT available JJ data NNS , , to TO evaluate VV the DT influence NN of IN this DT aspect NN of IN international JJ communication NN on IN the DT various JJ systems NNS . SENT In IN the DT UN NP the DT absence NN of IN a DT precise JJ invariable JJ terminology NN in IN Chinese JJ posed VVN serious JJ problems NNS for IN translators NNS in IN the DT 50 CD s PP and CC 60 CD s PP . SENT You're NP just RB doing VVG translation NN , , while IN we're NN making VVG up RP a DT new JJ language NN , , a DT reviser NN in IN the DT UN NP Chinese JJ section NN told VVD me PP at IN the DT time NN . SENT Similar JJ difficulties NNS appeared VVD when WRB Arabic NP was VBD introduced VVN in IN the DT seventies NNS . SENT In IN the DT European NP Union NP , , similar JJ problems NNS , , though RB less RBR serious JJ , , are VBP probably RB presented VVN by IN Dutch NP , , if IN one PP considers VVZ the DT variety NN of IN that DT language NN , , depending VVG on IN whether IN it PP is VBZ used VVN in IN Belgium NP or CC in IN the DT Netherlands NPS , , as RB well RB as IN its PP$ instability NN at IN the DT time NN when WRB the DT Treaty NP of IN Rome NP was VBD signed VVN , , but CC I PP have VHP not RB been VBN able JJ to TO gather VV information NN on IN the DT subject NN . SENT Similarly RB , , modern JJ Greek NP was VBD not RB a DT completely RB settled VVN language NN when WRB Greece NP joined VVD the DT Union NP and CC it PP would MD be VB interesting JJ to TO know VV how WRB the DT Greek JJ translation NN unit NN coped VVN with IN this DT problem NN . SENT It PP is VBZ quite RB likely JJ that IN terminology NN problems NNS will MD arise VV with IN the DT admission NN of IN the DT formerly RB communist JJ countries NNS . SENT If IN an DT international JJ organization NN adopted VVD Esperanto NN , , it PP would MD have VH to TO organize VV a DT fairly RB strong JJ terminological JJ service NN for IN that DT language NN . SENT In IN many JJ political JJ , , social JJ , , scientific JJ and CC technical JJ fields NNS , , Esperanto NN terminology NN predates VVZ that IN of IN Chinese NP , , Arabic NP and CC other JJ languages NNS such JJ as IN Swahili NN and CC Modern NP Hebrew NP . SENT Furthermore RB , , the DT language's NNS structures NNS allow VVP for IN the DT solution NN of IN terminological JJ problems NNS more RBR easily RB than IN other JJ , , more RBR rigid JJ , , languages NNS Esperanto NN had VHD a DT translation NN of IN software NN before IN French NP . SENT Nevertheless RB Esperanto NN terminology NN has VHZ many JJ gaps NNS as RB far RB as IN machine NN components NNS , , technical JJ processes NNS and CC special JJ items NNS or CC concepts NNS used VVN in IN industry NN , , engineering NN , , medicine NN , , pharmacy NN and CC other JJ fields NNS are VBP concerned VVN , , as RB well RB as RB for IN precise JJ subdivisions NNS or CC description NN elements NNS of IN products NNS in IN international JJ commerce NN . SENT There EX is VBZ a DT hundred CD year NN tradition NN of IN how WRB to TO set VV up RP Esperanto NN terminology NN through IN consultation NN among IN specialists NNS , , but CC the DT work NN to TO be VB done VVN is VBZ still RB considerable JJ . SENT Nevertheless RB , , such JJ work NN would MD not RB be VB greater JJR than IN that DT which WDT the DT UN NP Chinese JJ translation NN and CC terminology NN units NNS have VHP had VHD to TO carry VV out RP in IN the DT fifties NNS and CC sixties NNS . SENT Note NN on IN Esperanto NN meetings NNS The DT observations NNS made VVN in IN the DT framework NN of IN this DT research NN can MD be VB readily RB confirmed VVN for IN the DT first JJ three CD language NN approaches NNS . SENT Esperanto NN , , on IN the DT other JJ hand NN , , is VBZ to TO a DT large JJ extent NN unrecognized JJ , , even RB mistaken VVN for IN a DT project NN rather RB than IN a DT language NN actually RB in IN use NN . SENT Most JJS people NNS have VHP no DT idea NN that IN the DT language NN is VBZ constantly RB utilized VVN in IN certain JJ quarters NNS , , and CC know VV nothing NN of IN the DT milieu NN in IN which WDT its PP$ functioning NN can MD be VB scientifically RB researched VVN . SENT Hence RB the DT following VVG precisions NNS . SENT Although IN limited VVN to TO a DT marginal JJ segment NN of IN mankind NN , , Esperanto NN is VBZ the DT vehicle NN of IN all DT sorts NNS of IN activities NNS , , from IN poetry NN and CC song NN writing NN to TO scientific JJ teaching NN , , in IN many JJ different JJ settings NNS . SENT Since IN January NP 1985 CD , , it PP has VHZ been VBN every DT day NN , , somewhere RB in IN the DT world NN , , the DT language NN of IN a DT congress NN or CC conference NN or CC some DT other JJ kind NN of IN encounter NN . SENT An DT incomplete JJ list NN of IN such JJ meetings NNS can MD be VB found VVN on IN the DT Internet NN at IN . SENT http NN . SENT www JJ . SENT hungary NP . SENT net JJ esperanto NN . SENT The DT data NNS pertaining VVG to TO the DT Esperanto NN system NN in IN this DT study NN are VBP based VVN on IN the DT observation NN of IN meetings NNS held VVN under IN the DT auspices NNS of IN a DT number NN of IN organizations NNS and CC institutions NNS . SENT Universala NP Esperanto NN Asocio NP Universal NP Esperanto NN Association NP , , Literatura NP Foiro NP Literary JJ Fair NP , , Tutmonda NP Esperantista NP Junulara NP Organizo NP World NP Esperanto NN Youth NP Organization NP , , San NP Francisco NP State NP University NP , , Kultura NP Centro NP Esperantista NP Esperanto NN Cultural NP Center NP , , Japana NP Esperanto NN Instituto NP Japanese JJ Esperanto NN Institute NP , , Internacia NP Esperanto NN Muzeo NP International NP Esperanto NN Museum NP and CC Internacia NP Kultura NP Servo NN International NP Cultural NP Service NP . SENT The DT research NN work NN was VBD done VVN in IN two CD parts NNS , , the DT first JJ one NN in IN 1986 CD 87 CD in IN Beijing NP , , Tokyo NP , , Locarno NP , , Vienna NP , , San NP Francisco NP and CC Zagreb NP , , the DT second JJ one NN in IN 1993 CD 94 CD at IN Barcelona NP , , Novosibirsk NP , , La NP Chaux NP de NP Fonds NNS and CC Vienna NP . SENT Informal JJ meetings NNS in IN Ottawa NP , , Oslo NP , , Budapest NP and CC Helsinki NP confirmed VVD the DT observations NNS made VVN during IN structured JJ sessions NNS . SENT Only JJ discussions NNS in IN which WDT people NNS representing VVG at IN least JJS five CD mother NN tongues NNS took VVD part NN were VBD taken VVN into IN consideration NN . SENT As RB far RB as IN written JJ communication NN is VBZ concerned VVN , , the DT study NN is VBZ based VVN on IN the DT analysis NN of IN correspondence NN , , documents NNS and CC publications NNS of IN some DT of IN the DT organizations NNS quoted VVN above IN , , especially RB the DT Kultura NP Centro NP Esperantista NP an DT the DT Universala NP Esperanto NN Asocio NP . SENT As RB for IN the DT contents NNS , , the DT subjects NNS discussed VVN in IN the DT above JJ sample NN of IN organizations NNS where WRB Esperanto NN is VBZ used VVN varied VVN widely RB from IN the DT general NN to TO the DT very RB specific JJ , , just RB as RB in IN organizations NNS using VVG other JJ language NN policies NNS . SENT Comparison NN of IN the DT four CD systems NNS according VVG to TO the DT various JJ criteria NNS Under IN current JJ conditions NNS it PP is VBZ impossible JJ to TO gather VV exact JJ figures NNS for IN each DT of IN the DT criteria NNS that WDT have VHP been VBN defined VVN . SENT For IN many JJ , , an DT objectively RB quantifiable JJ result NN would MD simply RB be VB impossible JJ . SENT The DT figures NNS which WDT follow VVP are VBP thus RB evaluations NNS which WDT come VVP from IN observing VVG the DT functioning NN of IN linguistic JJ communication NN in IN organizations NNS of IN different JJ types NNS , , and CC , , for IN some DT items NNS , , for IN example NN the DT duration NN of IN language NN study NN , , from IN studies NNS on IN a DT statistically RB representative JJ sample NN of IN subjects NNS . SENT Each DT of IN the DT four CD systems NNS is VBZ rated VVN for IN each DT criterion NN on IN a DT ten CD point NN scale NN , , according VVG to TO the DT importance NN of IN the DT disadvantage NN which WDT has VHZ been VBN observed VVN . SENT 10 CD indicates VVZ a DT very RB serious JJ drawback NN , , and CC 0 CD the DT absence NN of IN the DT considered VVN disadvantage NN , , as RB follows VVZ . SENT 0 CD none NN , , 1 CD minimal JJ , , 2 CD negligible JJ , , 3 CD small JJ , , 4 CD moderate JJ , , 5 CD medium NN , , 6 CD considerable JJ , , 7 CD large JJ , , 8 CD very RB large JJ , , 9 CD enormous JJ , , 10 CD extreme NN , , maximal JJ Criterion NN U NP . SENT N NP . SENT Multinationals NNS European JJ Union NP Esperanto NN a DT Duration NN of IN language NN study NN participants NNS 8 CD 8 CD 0 CD 3 CD b SYM Prior RB investment NN by IN governments NNS 9 CD 9 CD 5 CD 0 CD c SYM Prior RB investment NN by IN institutions NNS 8 CD 0 CD 10 CD 0 CD d SYM Inequality NN and CC discrimination NN 6 CD 5 CD 0 CD 0 CD e SYM Language NP costs NNS of IN meetings NNS 7 CD 0 CD 10 CD 0 CD f SYM Language NP cost NN of IN document NN production NN 6 CD 0 CD 10 CD 0 CD g NN Waiting VVG time NN for IN documents NNS 6 CD 0 CD 6 CD 0 CD h NN Loss NN and CC distortion NN of IN information NN 5 CD 4 CD 6 CD 0 CD i NP Language NP handicap NN speech NN , , hearing VVG 5 CD 6 CD 0 CD 1 CD j NN Language NP handicap NN reading VVG 3 CD 4 CD 0 CD 1 CD k NN Limitations NNS and CC annoyances NNS 8 CD 3 CD 8 CD 0 CD l NN Probable JJ future JJ increase NN of IN drawbacks NNS 5 CD 0 CD 10 CD 0 CD Total JJ level NN of IN disadvantages NNS 76 CD 39 CD 65 CD 5 CD The DT figures NNS noted VVD above RB can MD be VB considered VVN unreliable JJ , , since IN they PP result VVP from IN simple JJ evaluations NNS lacking VVG a DT sufficiently RB objective JJ basis NN . SENT It PP may MD thus RB be VB interesting JJ to TO see VV what WP happens VVZ if IN they PP are VBP replaced VVN by IN a DT binary JJ system NN , , in IN which WDT 1 CD means NNS this DT disadvantage NN is VBZ present JJ and CC 0 CD this DT disadvantage NN does VVZ not RB exist VV . SENT If IN we PP switch VVP to TO such PDT a DT system NN , , which WDT can MD be VB deemed VVN to TO be VB objective JJ , , it PP is VBZ significant JJ that IN the DT communication NN system NN with IN the DT most JJS advantages NNS is VBZ still RB the DT fourth JJ one NN , , although IN this DT calculation NN method NN is VBZ particularly RB unfair JJ to TO it PP . SENT Indeed RB , , if IN six CD months NNS of IN Esperanto NN afford VV a DT communication NN level NN demanding VVG six CD years NNS for IN another DT language NN , , it PP does VVZ not RB give VV a DT fair JJ picture NN to TO give VV all DT systems NNS which WDT require VVP language NN learning VVG an DT equal JJ mark NN of IN 1 CD for IN this DT first JJ criterion NN . SENT But CC at IN least JJS this DT way NN of IN reckoning NN precludes VVZ the DT justified JJ criticism NN of IN subjective JJ rating NN . SENT Furthermore RB , , in IN order NN to TO give VV all DT other JJ three CD systems NNS the DT best JJS chances NNS , , we PP can MD remove VV criterion NN b NN previous JJ government's NN investment NN for IN the DT European NP Union NP and CC add VV it PP to TO the DT fourth JJ column NN , , considering VVG that IN , , if IN the DT Esperanto NN system NN were VBD adopted VVN , , governments NNS might MD feel VV called VVN upon RP to TO organize VV teaching NN of IN that DT international JJ language NN . SENT Criterion NN U NP . SENT N NP . SENT Multinationals NNS European JJ Union NP Esperanto NN a DT Duration NN of IN language NN study NN participants NNS 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD b SYM Prior RB investment NN by IN governments NNS 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD c SYM Prior RB investment NN by IN institutions NNS 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD 0 CD d SYM Inequality NN and CC discrimination NN 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD 0 CD e SYM Language NP costs NNS of IN meetings NNS 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD 0 CD f SYM Language NP cost NN of IN document NN production NN 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD 0 CD g NN Waiting VVG time NN for IN documents NNS 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD 0 CD h NN Loss NN and CC distortion NN of IN information NN 1 CD 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD i NP Language NP handicap NN speech NN , , hearing VVG 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD j NN Language NP handicap NN reading VVG 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD k NN Limitations NNS and CC annoyances NNS 1 CD 1 CD 1 CD 0 CD l NN Probable JJ future JJ increase NN of IN drawbacks NNS 1 CD 0 CD 1 CD 0 CD Total JJ level NN of IN disadvantages NNS 12 CD 7 CD 7 CD 4 CD Conclusion NN Observation NN of IN linguistic JJ communication NN according VVG to TO the DT four CD approaches NNS currently RB in IN use NN at IN the DT international JJ level NN reveals VVZ that IN the DT Esperanto NN system NN offers VVZ the DT most JJS advantages NNS , , as RB well RB for IN the DT individual JJ participants NNS as IN for IN the DT governments NNS and CC for IN the DT organizations NNS in IN whose WP$ framework NN international JJ communication NN is VBZ taking VVG place NN . SENT In IN other JJ words NNS , , it PP is VBZ , , with IN the DT multinational JJ system NN , , the DT most JJS cost NN effective JJ , , but CC it PP has VHZ , , over IN the DT latter NN , , the DT important JJ advantage NN of IN avoiding VVG discrimination NN and CC inequality NN among IN the DT persons NNS concerned VVN , , and CC of IN demanding VVG much RB less JJR time NN and CC effort NN for IN the DT participants NNS to TO reach VV the DT required VVN level NN of IN linguistic JJ competence NN . SENT However RB , , this DT system NN has VHZ to TO face VV up RP to TO an DT enormous JJ disadvantage NN which WDT has VHZ not RB been VBN mentioned VVN above RB . SENT apart RB from IN a DT few JJ private JJ organizations NNS , , its PP$ introduction NN would MD have VH to TO be VB organized VVN from IN scratch NN . SENT In IN itself PP , , this DT would MD not RB be VB so RB difficult JJ , , because RB of IN the DT linguistic JJ favorable JJ qualities NNS of IN Esperanto NN and CC the DT fact NN that IN it PP is VBZ so RB well RB adapted VVN to TO the DT functioning NN of IN the DT human JJ brain NN . SENT But CC the DT question NN of IN the DT most RBS appropriate JJ system NN of IN linguistic JJ communication NN in IN international JJ settings NNS must MD be VB approached VVN against IN a DT whole JJ background NN of IN political JJ , , social JJ , , cultural JJ and CC economic JJ forces NNS which WDT favor VVP inertia NN and CC the DT preservation NN of IN privileges NNS rather RB than IN a DT radical JJ change NN leading VVG to TO a DT more JJR cost NN effective JJ and CC democratic JJ solution NN , , putting VVG all DT cultures NNS on IN an DT equal JJ footing NN . SENT In IN proportion NN to TO the DT world NN population NN , , few JJ people NNS have VHP the DT ability NN to TO really RB master VV English JJ , , yet RB the DT trend NN in IN international JJ communication NN in IN recent JJ years NNS has VHZ been VBN towards IN the DT multinational JJ system NN , , based VVN on IN the DT use NN of IN that DT language NN only RB . SENT This DT has VHZ brought VVN about IN the DT creation NN of IN a DT linguistic JJ elite NN , , which WDT does VVZ not RB want VV to TO lose VV the DT many JJ advantages NNS it PP derives VVZ from IN belonging VVG to TO the DT small JJ circle NN of IN those DT who WP can MD take VV part NN in IN global JJ communication NN . SENT Such JJ being NN the DT situation NN , , it PP might MD be VB warranted VVN to TO include VV two CD additional JJ criteria NNS in IN the DT table NN presented VVN above IN . SENT They PP would MD refer VV to TO two CD disadvantages NNS that WDT might MD be VB called VVN organizing VVG the DT teaching NN of IN Esperanto NN all RB through IN the DT world NN on IN the DT one CD hand NN , , and CC overcoming VVG the DT force NN of IN inertia NN on IN the DT other JJ . SENT It PP is VBZ interesting JJ to TO note VV that IN if IN , , for IN these DT two CD additional JJ points NNS , , we PP give VVP the DT maximum JJ mark NN 10 CD to TO the DT Esperanto NN system NN , , and CC the DT minimum JJ one CD 0 CD for IN the DT three CD others NNS , , the DT figure NN summing VVG up RP the DT drawbacks NNS increases NNS to TO 25 CD for IN Esperanto NN , , but CC remains VVZ well RB below IN the DT drawback NN level NN of IN the DT others NNS UN NP 76 CD , , Multinationals NNS 39 CD , , European JJ Union NP 65 CD . SENT A DT similar JJ result NN is VBZ obtained VVN with IN the DT binary JJ ratings NNS , , in IN which WDT a DT drawback NN , , whatever WDT its PP$ weight NN or CC extent NN , , is VBZ rated VVN at IN 1 CD . SENT adding VVG 2 CD to TO the DT Esperanto NN option NN still RB leaves VVZ it PP as IN the DT system NN with IN the DT most JJS advantages NNS . SENT Shouldn't NP this DT be VB kept VVN in IN mind NN whenever WRB language NN use NN at IN the DT international JJ level NN is VBZ being VBG debated VVN . SENT REFERENCES NNS 1 CD C NP . SENT E SYM . SENT King NP , , A NP . SENT S NP . SENT Bryntsev NP , , F NP . SENT D SYM . SENT Sohn NP , , Report NP on IN the DT implications NNS of IN additional JJ languages NNS in IN the DT United NP Nations NPS system NN , , Geneva NP . SENT UN NP , , Joint NP Inspection NP Unit NP , , 1977 CD , , document VV A DT 32 CD 237 CD . SENT 2 CD League NP of IN Nations NPS , , L'esp NP ranto NP comme NN langue NN auxiliaire NN internationale NN . SENT Rapport NN du NP Secr NP tariat NN general NN , , adopt VV par JJ la FW Troisi NP me FW Assembl NP e NN , , Geneva NP . SENT League NP of IN Nations NPS , , 1922 CD . SENT 3 CD Joint NP Inspection NP Unit NP , , Evaluation NN of IN the DT Translation NN Process NN in IN the DT United NP Nations NPS System NP , , Geneva NP . SENT UN NP , , 1980 CD . SENT document NN JIU NP REP NN 80 CD 7 CD . SENT 4 CD Roman NP Rollnick NP , , Word NP mountains NNS are VBP costing VVG us PP a DT fortune NN , , The DT European NP , , December NP 20 CD 22 CD , , 1991 CD . SENT 5 CD Jean NP de FW la FW Gu NP rivi NP re NN , , Babel NP Bruxelles NP , , Le NP Monde NP , , January NP 12 CD , , 1995 CD , , p NN . SENT 15 CD . SENT 6 CD European NP Parliament NP , , Rapport NN sur NP le FW droit NN l'utilisation NN de NP sa NP propre NN langue NN , , March NP 22 CD , , 1994 CD Document NN A DT 3 CD 0162 CD 94 CD , , DOD NP . SENT FR NP RR NP 249 CD 249436 CD . SENT MLT NP PE NN 207 CD . SENT 826 CD . SENT 7 CD Pierre NP Janton NP , , La NP r NN sistance NN psychologique JJ aux NP langues NNS construite NN , , en IN particulier JJR l'esp NN ranto NN in IN . SENT Actes NP Journ NP e NN d SYM tude NN sur NP l'esp NP ranto NP Paris NP . SENT University NP of IN Paris NP 8 CD , , 1983 CD , , p NN . SENT 70 CD . SENT Reen NP