/Users/andrea/_magisterarbeit/korpus/clean/trainkorpus/1/file_16.html NN ----------------------------------------- : Neuroscience NP Biobehavioral NP Reviews NNS Volume NN 23 CD , , Issue NN 5 CD May NP 1999 CD Pages NP 635 CD 648 CD Journal NP Format NN PDF NP 111 CD K NP PII NP . SENT S NP 0149 CD 7634 CD 98 JJ 00057 CD 8 CD Copyright NN 1999 CD Elsevier NP Science NP Ltd NP . SENT All DT rights NNS reserved VVD . SENT Adaptations NNS and CC pathologies NNS linked VVN to TO dynamic JJ stabilization NN of IN neural JJ circuitry NN J NP . SENT Lee NP Kavanau NP , , University NP of IN California NP UCLA NP , , Department NP of IN Biology NN , , Box NP 951606 CD , , Los NP Angeles NP , , CA MD 90095 CD 1606 CD , , USA NP Received VVD 29 CD June NP 1998 CD . SENT revised VVN 27 CD August NP 1998 CD . SENT accepted VVN 14 CD September NP 1998 CD . SENT Available JJ online JJ 1 CD June NP 1999 CD . SENT AbstractBrain NN circuits NNS for IN infrequently RB employed VVN memories NNS are VBP reinforced VVN largely RB during IN sleep NN by IN self NN induced VVN , , electrical JJ slow JJ waves NNS , , a DT process NN referred VVD to TO as RB dynamic JJ stabilization NN DS NP . SENT The DT essence NN of IN waking VVG brain NN function NN in IN the DT absence NN of IN volitional JJ activity NN is VBZ sensory JJ input NN processing NN , , an DT enormous JJ amount NN of IN which WDT is VBZ visual JJ . SENT These DT two CD functions NNS . SENT circuit NN reinforcement NN by IN DS NP and CC sensory JJ information NN processing NN come VVN into IN conflict NN when WRB both DT occur VVP at IN a DT high JJ level NN , , a DT conflict NN that WDT may MD have VH been VBN the DT selective JJ pressure NN for IN sleep's JJ origin NN . SENT As IN brain NN waves NNS are VBP absent JJ at IN the DT low JJ temperatures NNS of IN deep JJ torpor NN , , essential JJ circuitry NN of IN hibernating VVG small JJ mammals NNS would MD lose VV its PP$ competence NN if IN the DT animals NNS did VVD not RB warm VV up RP periodically RB to TO temperatures NNS allowing VVG sleep NN and CC circuit NN reinforcement NN . SENT Blind NP , , cave NN dwelling NN vertebrates NNS require VVP no DT sleep NN because IN their PP$ sensory JJ processing NN does VVZ not RB interfere VV with IN DS NP . SENT Nor CC does VVZ such JJ interference NN arise VVP in IN continuously RB swimming VVG fishes NNS , , whose WP$ need NN to TO process VV visual JJ information NN is VBZ reduced VVN greatly RB by IN life NN in IN visually RB relatively RB featureless JJ , , pelagic JJ habitats NNS , , and CC by IN schooling NN . SENT Dreams NNS are VBP believed VVN to TO have VH their PP$ origin NN in IN DS NP of IN memory NN circuits NNS . SENT They PP are VBP thought VVN to TO have VH illusory JJ content NN when WRB the DT circuits NNS are VBP partially RB degraded VVN incompetent JJ , , with IN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS weakened VVN through IN infrequent JJ use NN . SENT Partially RB degraded VVN circuits NNS arise VVP normally RB in IN the DT course NN of IN synaptic JJ efficacy NN decay NN , , or CC pathologically RB through IN abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP . SENT Organic JJ delirium NN may MD result VV from IN breakdown NN of IN normal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP of IN circuitry NN during IN sleep NN , , leaving VVG many JJ circuits NNS incompetent JJ . SENT Activation NN of IN incompetent JJ circuits NNS during IN wakefulness NN apparently RB produces VVZ delirium NN and CC hallucinations NNS . SENT Some DT epileptic JJ seizures NNS may MD be VB induced VVN by IN abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP of IN motor NN circuitry NN . SENT Regimens NNS of IN remedial JJ DS NP during IN seizures NNS induced VVN by IN electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN ECT NNS apparently RB produce VVP temporary JJ remission NN of IN delirium NN by IN restoring VVG functional JJ or CC dedicated JJ synaptic JJ efficacies NNS in IN incompetent JJ circuitry NN . SENT Sparing VVG of IN sensory JJ circuitry NN in IN fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN seemingly RB owes VVZ to TO supernormal JJ circuit NN use NN in IN the DT virtual JJ absence NN of IN sleep NN . SENT ECT NN shocks NNS and CC cardioverter NN defibrillation NN may MD have VH analogous JJ remedial JJ influences NNS . SENT Author NN Keywords NNS . SENT Synaptic JJ refreshment NN . SENT Sensory JJ processing NN . SENT Non JJ sleeping NN vertebrates NNS . SENT Deep JJ torpor NN . SENT Authentic JJ versus CC illusory JJ dreams NNS . SENT Delirium NN . SENT Fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN Index NN Terms NNS . SENT memory NN . SENT sleep NN . SENT wakefulness NN Article NN Outline NN 1 CD . SENT Introduction NN 2 CD . SENT The DT neural JJ substrate NN 2 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Reinforcement NN of IN memory NN circuitry NN during IN sleep NN 2 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT The DT major JJ function NN of IN the DT awake JJ brain NN 2 CD . SENT 3 LS . SENT The DT fundamental JJ dogma NN 3 CD . SENT The DT selective JJ pressure NN for IN sleep NN 4 CD . SENT Overt JJ links NNS between IN sleep NN and CC vision NN 5 CD . SENT Ancillary JJ benefits NNS of IN sleep NN 6 CD . SENT Continuously RB swimming NN fishes VVZ 6 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Obtaining VVG the DT essential JJ benefits NNS of IN rest NN and CC sleep NN by IN schooling NN 7 CD . SENT Deep JJ torpor NN 8 CD . SENT Dreaming VVG 8 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Dream NN genesis NN and CC significance NN 8 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT Authentic JJ recent JJ recall NN versus IN illusoriness NN or CC delirium NN 9 CD . SENT Delirium NN 9 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Delirium NN and CC the DT specific JJ remedial JJ effects NNS of IN electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN 10 CD . SENT Sparing VVG of IN sensory JJ circuitry NN in IN fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN 10 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT General JJ considerations NNS 10 JJ . SENT 2 LS . SENT Specific JJ manifestations NNS and CC proposed VVN relationships NNS 10 JJ . SENT 3 LS . SENT Contrast NN with IN encephalitis NN lethargica NP 11 CD . SENT DiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences NP 1 CD . SENT IntroductionTwo NP major JJ functions NNS of IN the DT brain NN are VBP the DT storage NN and CC maintenance NN of IN memory NN circuits NNS unless IN otherwise RB indicated VVN , , both CC experiential JJ and CC inherited VVN memory NN circuits NNS are VBP referred VVN to TO . SENT Experiential JJ memories NNS become VVP established VVN initially RB by IN a DT tailoring VVG of IN circuit NN synaptic JJ efficacy NN values NNS for IN specific JJ functions NNS in IN the DT course NN of IN circuit NN use NN . SENT When WRB the DT functions NNS recur VV sufficiently RB frequently RB , , the DT tailored JJ efficacy NN values NNS are VBP maintained VVN refreshed VVN by IN use NN dependent JJ synaptic JJ plasticity NN . SENT Many JJ adaptive JJ functions NNS , , however RB , , occur VVP only RB infrequently RB . SENT As IN degradative JJ and CC depletional JJ processes NNS are VBP in IN continuous JJ operation NN , , synaptic JJ efficacy NN values NNS in IN circuits NNS for IN infrequently RB used VVN functions NNS gradually RB would MD depart VV from IN their PP$ dedicated JJ values NNS in IN the DT absence NN of IN a DT mechanism NN to TO refresh VV them PP over IN the DT long JJ term NN . SENT For IN these DT circuits NNS , , a DT self NN induced VVD brain NN mechanism NN comes VVZ into IN play NN that WDT accomplishes VVZ long JJ term NN maintenance NN . SENT Essentially RB the DT same JJ basic JJ mechanism NN termed VVD dynamic JJ stabilization NN DS NP apparently RB refreshes VVZ synaptic JJ efficacies NNS in IN circuits NNS for IN both DT frequently RB and CC infrequently RB occurring VVG functions NNS , , both CC inherited VVN and CC experiential JJ , , including VVG inherited VVN memories NNS expressed VVD only RB late RB in IN adult NN life NN . SENT For IN frequently RB occurring VVG functions NNS , , the DT mechanism NN is VBZ simply RB the DT use NN of IN the DT circuitry NN in IN implementation NN of IN the DT functions NNS functional JJ DS NP . SENT For IN infrequently RB occurring VVG functions NNS , , the DT circuitry NN is VBZ activated VVN repetitively RB during IN sleep NN by IN self NN induced VVN , , electrical JJ slow JJ waves NNS non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP . SENT This DT latter JJ form NN of IN reinforcement NN is VBZ said VVN to TO be VB non JJ utilitarian JJ because IN dedicated JJ functions NNS usually RB are VBP not RB triggered VVN because IN of IN lesser JJR or CC lower JJR frequency NN inducing VVG potentials NNS or CC temporarily RB raised VVN activation NN thresholds NNS 62 CD , , 63 CD and CC 64 CD . SENT Use VV dependent JJ synaptic JJ plasticity NN takes VVZ many JJ forms NNS , , and CC leads VVZ , , upon IN activation NN of IN a DT synapse NN , , to TO a DT strengthening NN or CC refreshment NN of IN its PP$ efficacy NN for IN variable JJ periods NNS . SENT A DT mild JJ stimulus NN once RB , , every DT few JJ seconds NNS , , or CC several JJ times NNS per IN second JJ refreshes VVZ efficacies NNS for IN fractions NNS of IN a DT second JJ to TO several JJ minutes NNS . SENT more RBR frequent JJ or CC intense JJ activations NNS do VVP so RB for IN many JJ minutes NNS to TO hours NNS . SENT A DT sufficiently RB strong JJ or CC frequent JJ stimulation NN of IN synapses NNS in IN some DT circuits NNS may MD refresh VV efficacies NNS for IN days NNS , , or CC even RB weeks NNS long JJ term NN potentiation NN . SENT Refreshments NNS lasting VVG for IN weeks NNS to TO months NNS also RB occur VVP . SENT these DT involve VVP the DT activation NN of IN genes NNS that WDT otherwise RB are VBP unexpressed JJ , , with IN a DT resulting VVG synthesis NN and CC incorporation NN of IN new JJ proteins NNS into IN synapses NNS reviewed VVN in IN Ref NN . SENT 62 CD . SENT Some DT of IN the DT roles NNS that IN memory NN maintenance NN mechanisms NNS appear VVP to TO play VV in IN other JJ neural JJ associated JJ phenomena NNS are VBP considered VVN here RB . SENT These DT roles NNS relate VVP to TO . SENT the DT selective JJ pressure NN for IN the DT evolution NN of IN sleep NN . SENT the DT basis NN for IN the DT absence NN of IN a DT need NN for IN sleep NN by IN many JJ ectothermic NN loosely RB speaking VVG , , cold JJ blooded JJ vertebrates NNS . SENT a DT basic JJ function NN of IN piscene NN schooling NN . SENT the DT ability NN of IN birds NNS to TO fly VV for IN days NNS without IN rest NN . SENT the DT basis NN for IN periodic JJ arousals NNS of IN small JJ mammals NNS from IN deep JJ torpor NN . SENT genesis NN of IN dreams NNS of IN authentic JJ versus CC illusory JJ content NN . SENT the DT neural JJ substrate NN for IN organic JJ delirium NN , , and CC the DT mechanism NN of IN its PP$ remediation NN by IN electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN ECT NN . SENT the DT sparing VVG of IN sensory JJ circuitry NN from IN severe JJ pathological JJ changes NNS in IN fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN FFI NP . SENT the DT sparing VVG of IN cognitive JJ circuitry NN in IN adults NNS with IN sleeping VVG sickness NN . SENT and CC analogies NNS between IN the DT actions NNS of IN ECT NN and CC cardioverter NN defibrillation NN . SENT 2 LS . SENT The DT neural JJ substrate NN 2 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Reinforcement NN of IN memory NN circuitry NN during IN sleepThe NN concept NN that IN sleep NN benefits NNS brain NN circuitry NN has VHZ deep JJ roots NNS , , reaching VVG back RB at IN least JJS to TO De NP Manac NP ne RB in IN 1899 CD 29 CD , , who WP stated VVD with IN remarkable JJ prescience NN that IN dreams NNS . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT have VHP a DT direct JJ salutary JJ influence NN insofar RB as IN they PP serve VVP to TO exercise VV regions NNS of IN the DT brain NN which WDT in IN the DT waking VVG state NN remain VVP unemployed JJ . SENT About IN 65 CD y NN later RBR , , Moruzzi NP 75 CD proposed VVD that DT sleep NN facilitates VVZ recovery NN processes NNS in IN circuitry NN for IN learned VVN acts NNS . SENT As RB of IN that DT time NN , , the DT studies NNS of IN numerous JJ investigators NNS have VHP supported VVN the DT paradigm NN that WDT , , throughout IN life NN , , repetitive JJ , , self NN induced VVD activations NNS in IN the DT brains NNS of IN endothermic JJ vertebrates NNS mammals NNS and CC birds NNS reinforce VVP memory NN circuits NNS during IN both DT rapid JJ eye NN movement NN REM NP and CC non JJ REM NP NREM NP sleep NN reviewed VVN in IN Ref NN . SENT 64 CD . SENT The DT origins NNS of IN the DT repetitive JJ activations NNS also RB have VHP received VVN much JJ attention NN , , with IN experimental JJ evidence NN implicating VVG primarily RB various JJ slow JJ waves NNS irregular JJ sharp JJ spikes NNS 1 CD 50 CD 3 CD Hz NP , , spikes VVZ resulting VVG from IN spindle NN 7 CD 14 CD Hz NP and CC delta JJ 1 CD 4 CD Hz NP oscillations NNS , , theta NN waves NNS 4 CD 10 CD Hz NP , , continuous JJ synaptic JJ bombardment NN from IN the DT intrinsic JJ neocortical JJ networks NNS that WDT generate VVP the DT slow JJ sleep NN oscillation NN 0 CD . SENT 3 CD Hz NP , , etc FW . SENT characteristic NN mostly RB , , but CC not RB exclusively RB , , of IN NREM NP sleep NN reviewed VVN in IN Ref NN . SENT 64 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT 2 LS . SENT The DT major JJ function NN of IN the DT awake JJ brainThe NN essence NN of IN awake JJ brain NN function NN in IN the DT absence NN of IN volitional JJ activity NN is VBZ the DT processing NN of IN sensory JJ input NN , , an DT enormous JJ amount NN of IN which WDT is VBZ visual JJ , , and CC for IN which WDT . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT the DT brain NN has VHZ developed VVN so RB complex JJ and CC versatile JJ a DT machinery NN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT 133 CD . SENT Numerous JJ studies NNS in IN mammals NNS have VHP shown VVN that IN large JJ regions NNS of IN neocortex NN over IN 50 CD in IN macaque NN monkeys NNS , , Macaca NP fascicularis NNS are VBP devoted VVN to TO visual JJ processing NN 102 CD and CC 120 CD . SENT Some DT of IN them PP also RB contain VVP motor NN , , auditory JJ , , and CC somatosensory JJ functions NNS , , and CC all DT are VBP interconnected VVN by IN very RB rich JJ subcortical JJ networks NNS reviewed VVN in IN Ref NN . SENT 64 CD . SENT Of IN all PDT the DT afferent JJ fibers NNS to TO the DT CNS NP in IN man NN and CC the DT higher JJR apes NNS , , one CD third NN come VVN from IN the DT eyes NNS 16 CD . SENT Other JJ indications NNS of IN the DT overwhelming JJ sensory JJ dominance NN of IN detailed JJ focal JJ vision NN are VBP the DT findings NNS that IN over IN 2 CD 3 CD rd NN of IN the DT 5 CD , , 000 CD 7 CD , , 000 CD vital JJ lethally RB mutable JJ genes NNS of IN the DT fruit NN fly NN , , Drosophila NN , , are VBP required VVN for IN normal JJ assembly NN of IN optic JJ ganglia NNS and CC compound NN eyes NNS , , and CC that IN about IN 50 CD of IN all DT neurons NNS serve VVP visual JJ functions NNS 117 CD . SENT Also RB the DT regulatory JJ homeobox NN variant NN Pax NN 6 CD at IN the DT top NN of IN the DT cascade NN for IN eye NN development NN is VBZ a DT master NN control NN gene NN in IN both DT vertebrates NNS and CC Drosophila NN 91 JJ . SENT 2 LS . SENT 3 LS . SENT The DT fundamental JJ dogma NN There EX is VBZ an DT intrinsic JJ basis NN , , termed VVD the DT fundamental JJ dogma NN by IN Rauschecker NP 93 CD , , for IN potential JJ incompatibilities NNS between IN the DT brain's JJ endogenous JJ processing NN of IN information NN concomitantly RB with IN its PP$ reception NN and CC processing NN of IN sensory JJ input NN . SENT learning NN and CC memory NN processing NN involve VVP many JJ of IN the DT same JJ cortical JJ regions NNS that WDT process VVP sensory JJ information NN and CC control NN motor NN output NN 119 CD . SENT For IN example NN , , neuronal JJ activity NN circulating VVG in IN cortical JJ and CC thalamic JJ networks NNS is VBZ modified VVN by IN activity NN engendered VVN by IN incoming JJ sensory JJ information NN 124 CD . SENT A DT classical JJ example NN of IN sensory JJ interference NN is VBZ blocking VVG of IN the DT alpha NN rhythm NN 8 CD 12 CD Hz NP by IN alerting VVG stimuli NNS 77 CD . SENT The DT fundamental JJ dogma NN concept NN dates VVZ back RB even RB much RB earlier RBR than IN the DT concept NN of IN sleep NN being VBG of IN benefit NN to TO brain NN circuitry NN , , having VHG been VBN deduced VVN before IN 1796 CD by IN Erasmus NP Darwin NP 25 CD , , based VVN on IN a DT few JJ simple NN , , ingenious JJ experiments NNS . SENT In IN 1899 CD , , De NP Manac NP ne RB 29 CD referred VVD to TO it PP as IN a DT law NN , , . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT the DT law NN that IN every DT reminiscence NN or CC repetition NN of IN past JJ movement NN or CC sensation NN is VBZ accompanied VVN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT by IN changes NNS and CC processes VVZ analogous JJ to TO those DT produced VVN during IN the DT actual JJ accomplishment NN of IN these DT movements NNS or CC sensations NNS . SENT Considering VVG the DT sometimes RB enormous JJ requirement NN of IN the DT active JJ wakeful JJ brain NN for IN processing VVG visual JJ information NN , , and CC the DT potential NN for IN this DT activity NN to TO interfere VV with IN the DT brain's NP DS NP of IN memory NN circuits NNS , , a DT strong JJ selection NN against IN reception NN of IN superfluous JJ visual JJ input NN to TO central JJ brain NN regions NNS would MD be VB expected VVN during IN periods NNS of IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN . SENT As IN employed VVN in IN the DT following NN , , quiet JJ wakefulness NN sometimes RB referred VVD to TO as IN drowsiness NN , , restful JJ waking VVG , , or CC rest NN of IN sighted JJ animals NNS is VBZ characterized VVN minimally RB by IN behavioral JJ quiescence NN that WDT is VBZ , , cessation NN of IN voluntary JJ activity NN , , very RB little RB altered VVN sensory JJ thresholds NNS , , with IN responsiveness NN to TO external JJ stimuli NNS only RB somewhat RB less JJR than IN during IN active JJ wakefulness NN , , species NNS specific JJ postures NNS , , vigilance NN and CC , , at IN most JJS , , only RB brief JJ and CC intermittent JJ pupillary JJ occlusion NN . SENT 3 LS . SENT The DT selective JJ pressure NN for IN sleepAs NNS non JJ sleeping NN animals NNS acquired VVD increasingly RB complex JJ brains NNS , , behavioral JJ repertories NNS , , and CC visual JJ competencies NNS , , together RB with IN ever RB enlarging VVG memory NN stores NNS , , increasing VVG amounts NNS of IN DS NP of IN memory NN circuits NNS would MD have VH been VBN required VVN during IN periods NNS of IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN . SENT Eventually RB , , with IN continued JJ advances NNS in IN brain NN complexity NN , , a DT condition NN would MD have VH been VBN attained VVN in IN which WDT greatly RB increased VVD needs NNS for IN DS NP of IN memory NN circuits NNS conflicted VVN significantly RB with IN the DT processing NN of IN sensory JJ inputs NNS , , predominantly RB visual JJ . SENT In IN other JJ words NNS , , there RB came VVD to TO be VB too RB much RB overlap VV in IN the DT circuitry NN for IN the DT two CD functions NNS . SENT The DT selective JJ pressure NN for IN the DT evolutionary JJ origin NN of IN primitive JJ sleep NN may MD have VH been VBN the DT need NN to TO ameliorate VV this DT conflict NN , , that WDT is VBZ , , to TO achieve VV a DT more RBR profound JJ state NN of IN brain NN unresponsiveness NN to TO these DT sensory JJ inputs NNS during IN DS NP of IN circuitry NN than IN usually RB occurs VVZ during IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN . SENT If IN , , under IN this DT selective JJ pressure NN , , the DT brain NN were VBD relieved VVN of IN requirements NNS to TO deal VV extensively RB with IN environmental JJ input NN as IN during IN sleep NN , , DS NP could MD have VH proceeded VVN unimpededly RB . SENT The DT resulting VVG sleep NN typically RB would MD have VH been VBN characterized VVN by IN behavioral JJ quiescence NN , , elevated VVD sensory JJ thresholds NNS , , rapid JJ arousability NN by IN moderately RB intense JJ stimuli NNS , , species NNS specific JJ postures NNS , , and CC occluded VVN pupils NNS . SENT 4 LS . SENT Overt JJ links NNS between IN sleep NN and CC visionAmong NN thousands NNS of IN molluscan JJ species NNS , , sleep NN occurs VVZ only RB in IN those DT with IN large JJ , , image NN forming VVG eyes NNS , , and CC or CC enlarged JJ visual JJ brain NN regions NNS . SENT These DT include VVP octopuses NNS , , squids NNS , , cuttlefishes NNS , , and CC nautiluses NNS 22 CD , , 55 CD , , 74 CD , , 83 CD and CC 122 CD . SENT Among IN other JJ invertebrates NNS , , I PP know VVP of IN no DT species NN with IN compound JJ eyes NNS that WDT is VBZ known VVN conclusively RB to TO lack NN behavioral JJ sleep NN , , nor CC of IN any DT species NN that WDT exhibits VVZ behavioral JJ sleep NN but CC lacks VVZ detailed JJ focal JJ vision NN . SENT Sleep NN in IN honey NN bees NNS has VHZ been VBN studied VVN in IN detail NN . SENT As IN judged VVN by IN behavioral JJ and CC physiological JJ criteria NNS , , it PP greatly RB resembles VVZ that IN in IN many JJ vertebrates NNS , , including VVG decreased VVN muscle NN tone NN , , irregular JJ changes NNS in IN neck NN muscle NN tone NN , , and CC twitching VVG of IN the DT terminal JJ segments NNS of IN appendages NNS 58 CD and CC 59 CD . SENT Behavioral JJ sleep NN also RB occurs VVZ in IN grasshoppers NNS , , wasps NNS , , flies VVZ , , dragonflies NNS , , butterflies NNS , , moths NNS , , beetles NNS , , cockroaches NNS , , and CC scorpions NNS . SENT In IN some DT of IN them PP , , sleep NN deprivation NN causes VVZ the DT accumulation NN of IN a DT behavioral JJ sleep NN debt NN 19 CD . SENT Evidence NN from IN cold JJ blooded JJ vertebrates NNS is VBZ of IN a DT different JJ nature NN , , but CC crucial JJ . SENT Sleep NN is VBZ unknown JJ in IN any DT genetically RB blind JJ species NNS , , including VVG cave NN dwelling NN fishes NNS and CC salamanders NNS 15 CD , , 85 CD and CC 106 CD , , burrowing VVG , , worm NN like IN hagfishes NNS 105 CD , , and CC primitive JJ , , legless JJ amphibians NNS , , the DT caecilians NNS 104 CD . SENT Quiet JJ wakefulness NN without IN sleep NN , , which WDT usually RB is VBZ engaged VVN in IN under IN conditions NNS of IN relative JJ safety NN , , is VBZ known VVN in IN one CD species NNS of IN frog NN and CC three CD species NNS of IN reptiles NNS 19 CD . SENT Negative JJ correlations NNS between IN vision NN and CC sleep NN in IN mammals NNS and CC birds NNS are VBP even RB more RBR highly RB suggestive JJ . SENT For IN example NN , , to TO sleep VV , , we PP must MD block VV patterned VVN visual JJ input NN by IN closing VVG our PP$ eyelids NNS . SENT People NNS who WP cannot NN keep VV their PP$ eyelids NNS closed VVD the DT floppy JJ eyelid NN syndrome NN must MD bury VV their PP$ faces NNS in IN a DT pillow NN , , or CC shield VV their PP$ eyes NNS from IN visual JJ input NN in IN some DT other JJ way NN 18 CD . SENT If IN eyelid NN closure NN were VBD merely RB for IN protection NN of IN the DT cornea NN , , opacity NN would MD not RB be VB required VVN . SENT The DT most RBS compelling JJ negative JJ correlation NN between IN vision NN and CC sleep NN is VBZ that IN many JJ birds NNS engage VVP in IN NREM NP sleep NN with IN only RB one CD half NN of IN their PP$ brains NNS at IN a DT time NN , , and CC with IN the DT lids NNS of IN only RB the DT opposite JJ eye NN closed VVD . SENT as RB soon RB as IN the DT lids NNS of IN one CD eye NN close NN , , the DT opposite JJ half NN of IN the DT brain NN falls VVZ asleep RB . SENT The DT two CD actions NNS are VBP so RB closely RB associated VVN that IN eyelid NN closure NN is VBZ regarded VVN as IN the DT equivalent NN of IN sleep NN , , and CC its PP$ most RBS reliable JJ behavioral JJ indication NN 1 CD , , 60 CD and CC 116 CD . SENT Both DT right NN and CC left VVD unihemispheric JJ sleep NN occur VVP in IN each DT individual NN . SENT This DT is VBZ possible JJ for IN birds NNS because IN the DT nerves NNS from IN each DT eye NN cross VVP over RB decussate VV completely RB in IN the DT optic JJ chiasm NN , , making VVG direct JJ connections NNS only RB with IN the DT opposite JJ half NN of IN the DT brain NN 79 CD and CC 118 CD . SENT However RB , , secondary JJ recrossing NN fibers NNS may MD exist VV at IN several JJ higher JJR levels NNS of IN the DT brain NN , , connecting VVG the DT visual JJ target NN regions NNS of IN the DT two CD hemispheres NNS 101 CD . SENT During IN brief JJ periods NNS of IN REM NP sleep VVP usually RB lasting JJ about IN 5 CD 6 CD s PP , , and CC not RB exceeding VVG 30 CD s VVZ the DT lids NNS of IN both DT eyes NNS are VBP closed VVN 1 CD and CC 6 CD . SENT Even RB in IN domestic JJ chicks NNS , , which WDT do VVP not RB sleep VV unihemispherically RB , , electroencephalographic JJ EEG NP patterns NNS differ VVP in IN the DT two CD hemispheres NNS when WRB visual JJ input NN to TO one CD eye NN is VBZ blocked VVN . SENT the DT contralateral JJ hemisphere NN exhibits VVZ slow JJ wave NN activity NN while IN the DT ipsilateral JJ one CD exhibits NNS the DT typical JJ pattern NN of IN arousal NN 81 CD and CC 82 CD . SENT Dolphin NP optic JJ nerves NNS also RB decussate VV completely RB 96 CD and CC 125 CD , , and CC dolphins NNS also RB engage VVP in IN unihemispheric JJ NREM NP sleep NN , , in IN which WDT case NN the DT open JJ eye NN is VBZ said VVN to TO perform VV a DT sentinel NN function NN . SENT This DT ability NN allows VVZ dolphins NNS and CC some DT other JJ marine JJ mammals NNS to TO be VB active JJ unceasingly RB 76 CD and CC 80 CD . SENT The DT blind JJ Indus NN river NN dolphin NN , , inhabiting VVG the DT murky JJ , , turbid JJ Indus NN river NN , , is VBZ always RB on IN the DT go NN , , day NN after IN day NN , , year NN after IN year NN 86 CD . SENT Unlike IN birds NNS , , however RB , , dolphins NNS do VVP not RB engage VV in IN REM NP sleep NN . SENT They PP apparently RB do VVP not RB require VV REM NP sleep NN , , a DT major JJ function NN of IN which WDT is VBZ believed VVN to TO be VB the DT non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN motor NN circuitry NN 64 CD see VVP , , also RB , , Section NP 8 CD , , because IN their PP$ motor NN circuitry NN undergoes VVZ virtually RB unremitting JJ functional JJ DS NP through IN continuous JJ use NN . SENT 5 LS . SENT Ancillary JJ benefits NNS of IN sleepThe NNS proposed VVN origin NN and CC primal JJ function NN of IN sleep NN would MD not RB rule VV out RP the DT subsequent JJ or CC concomitant JJ evolution NN of IN ancillary JJ benefits NNS that WDT may MD have VH become VVN essential JJ in IN some DT forms NNS . SENT Indeed RB , , for IN almost RB all DT endothermic JJ loosely RB speaking VVG , , warm JJ blooded JJ vertebrates NNS , , ancillary JJ or CC secondary JJ functions NNS of IN sleep NN , , such JJ as IN bodily JJ rest NN and CC rejuvenation NN , , physiological JJ restoration NN , , regulation NN of IN hormonal JJ secretions NNS , , and CC reinforcing VVG of IN the DT immune JJ system NN also RB appear VVP to TO come VV into IN play NN , , as RB well RB as IN deep RB seated VVN , , circadian JJ rhythmical JJ changes NNS that WDT engage VVP many JJ physiological JJ systems NNS 32 CD and CC 123 CD . SENT The DT physiological JJ and CC thermoregulatory JJ continuities NNS between IN sleep NN and CC shallow JJ and CC deep JJ torpor NN hibernation NN in IN some DT mammals NNS and CC birds NNS indicate VVP that DT energy NN conservation NN also RB is VBZ an DT ancillary JJ benefit NN of IN sleep NN 10 CD . SENT Carefully RB controlled VVN efforts NNS to TO identify VV sleep's NNS basic JJ function NN in IN mammals NNS 95 RB are VBP complicated VVN by IN such JJ ancillary JJ benefits NNS , , and CC results NNS of IN such JJ studies NNS remain VVP ambiguous JJ 94 CD . SENT However RB , , the DT ability NN of IN many JJ fishes NNS to TO swim VV continuously RB shows NNS that IN bodily JJ rest NN and CC rejuvenation NN , , physiological JJ restoration NN , , energy NN conservation NN , , and CC deep RB seated VVN , , circadian JJ rhythmical JJ changes NNS , , at IN least JJS , , are VBP not RB inherently RB indispensable JJ . SENT Many JJ continuously RB swimming NN fishes NNS would MD suffocate VV if IN they PP were VBD to TO stop VV swimming VVG 65 CD . SENT 6 CD . SENT Continuously RB swimming VVG fishesAlthough NNS most JJS fishes NNS rest NN or CC sleep NN , , some DT are VBP perpetually RB active JJ , , including VVG lamnoid JJ sharks NNS such JJ as IN great JJ whites NNS , , porbeagles NNS , , and CC makos NNS , , scombrids NNS such JJ as IN tunas NNS , , bonitos NNS , , mackerels NNS , , and CC albacores NNS , , salmonids NNS salmon NN and CC trout NN and CC many JJ nocturnal JJ , , reef NN dwelling NN fishes VVZ that DT school NN . SENT A DT consideration NN of IN features NNS common JJ to TO the DT quite RB different JJ lifestyles NNS of IN these DT non JJ sleeping NN fishes VVZ points NNS compellingly RB to TO a DT link NN between IN the DT generally RB very RB limited JJ use NN of IN their PP$ vision NN and CC the DT absence NN of IN a DT need NN for IN sleep NN . SENT Four CD factors NNS are VBP believed VVN to TO account VV for IN the DT absence NN of IN a DT need NN for IN rest NN or CC sleep NN by IN continuously RB swimming VVG fishes NNS . SENT a DT their PP$ conspicuous JJ habit NN of IN schooling NN , , by IN greatly RB reducing VVG needs NNS for IN sensory JJ information NN processing NN , , provides VVZ the DT essential JJ benefits NNS of IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN and CC sleep NN . SENT b SYM reduced VVN visual JJ input NN during IN nighttime NN swimming NN interferes VVZ minimally RB with IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP . SENT c SYM as IN their PP$ motor NN circuits NNS are VBP reinforced VVN during IN continuous JJ swimming NN , , these DT circuits NNS require VVP no DT non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP . SENT and CC d NN they PP lead VVP a DT comparatively RB routine JJ including VVG continuous JJ predator NN prey NN pressure NN , , pelagic JJ existence NN , , with IN the DT accumulation NN of IN relatively RB few JJ experiential JJ memories NNS , , compared VVN to TO fishes VV that DT rest NN or CC sleep VV 65 CD . SENT 6 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Obtaining VVG the DT essential JJ benefits NNS of IN rest NN and CC sleep NN by IN schoolingPiscene NN schooling NN is VBZ described VVN in IN detail NN elsewhere RB 65 CD . SENT The DT key JJ consideration NN , , pointing VVG to TO a DT probable JJ basic JJ function NN of IN inactive JJ schooling NN i NP . SENT e SYM . SENT , , schooling NN at IN a DT relatively RB fixed VVN location NN relates VVZ to TO brain NN activities NNS facilitated VVN by IN the DT lesser JJR requirements NNS for IN sensory JJ processing NN . SENT The DT fishes NNS at IN inner JJ positions NNS of IN schools NNS need VVP not RB exercise VV the DT full JJ range NN of IN their PP$ sensory JJ capabilities NNS they PP have VHP no DT need NN to TO listen VV smell NN , , or CC process VV complex JJ visual JJ information NN . SENT They PP need VVP only RB maintain VV awareness NN of IN their PP$ position NN with IN respect NN to TO nearest JJS neighbors NNS , , which WDT also RB can MD be VB accomplished VVN with IN the DT lateral JJ line NN system NN 65 CD . SENT On IN the DT average NN , , then RB , , the DT amount NN of IN sensory JJ processing NN carried VVD out RP in IN the DT brains NNS of IN inactively RB schooling NN fishes NNS is VBZ reduced VVN greatly RB compared VVN to TO the DT amount NN in IN alert JJ , , solitary JJ swimmers NNS . SENT In IN effect NN , , the DT burden NN of IN sensory JJ processing NN is VBZ shifted VVN from IN individuals NNS to TO the DT entire JJ school NN collectively RB 43 CD , , 44 CD , , 65 CD , , 110 CD and CC 127 CD . SENT For IN these DT reasons NNS , , inactive JJ schooling NN provides VVZ the DT essential JJ benefits NNS for IN schooling NN fishes NNS that IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN and CC sleep VV provide VV for IN non JJ schooling NN fishes NNS . SENT With IN the DT need NN for IN processing NN of IN sensory JJ input NN , , particularly RB visual JJ , , during IN schooling NN greatly RB reduced VVN , , conditions NNS are VBP favorable JJ for IN the DT non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN infrequently RB used VVN memories NNS , , with IN minimal JJ interference NN . SENT It PP will MD be VB evident JJ that IN similar JJ benefits NNS of IN a DT reduction NN in IN needs NNS for IN sensory JJ processing NN that WDT apply VVP for IN inactively RB schooling NN fishes VVZ also RB probably RB apply VV for IN the DT members NNS of IN avian JJ flocks VVZ perhaps RB even RB for IN solitary JJ birds NNS on IN long JJ migrations NNS . SENT In IN the DT conditions NNS encountered VVD in IN flight NN , , there EX is VBZ little RB need VVP to TO exclude VV visual JJ input NN , , as IN there EX is VBZ little JJ or CC no DT detail NN to TO be VB seen VVN , , and CC almost RB half NN of IN the DT time NN is VBZ spent VVN in IN dim JJ light NN or CC darkness NN . SENT Any DT employed VVN terrestrial JJ or CC celestial JJ cues NNS would MD not RB require VV detailed JJ visual JJ analysis NN . SENT Thus RB , , the DT minimal JJ interference NN of IN sensory JJ input NN with IN reinforcement NN of IN memories NNS for IN birds NNS flying VVG under IN such JJ conditions NNS could MD account VV for IN the DT ability NN to TO go VV without IN rest NN or CC sleep NN for IN long JJ periods NNS . SENT 7 CD . SENT Deep JJ torporSome JJ small JJ mammals NNS , , for IN example NN the DT Arctic NP ground NN squirrel NN Spermophilus NP parryii NP , , periodically RB enter VV a DT state NN of IN deep JJ torpor NN during IN winter NN seasons NNS , , during IN which WDT body NN temperatures NNS may MD decline VV to TO as RB low JJ as IN 2 CD to TO 5 CD C NP and CC brain NN waves NNS cease VVP 24 CD . SENT The DT adaptive JJ value NN of IN deep JJ torpor NN lies VVZ in IN the DT accompanying JJ energy NN conservation NN , , which WDT helps VVZ to TO tide NN the DT animals NNS over IN the DT winter NN period NN of IN nutritively RB poor JJ conditions NNS . SENT Paradoxically RB , , however RB , , all DT mammals NNS that WDT engage VVP in IN deep JJ torpor NN , , periodically RB every DT one CD to TO three CD weeks NNS warm JJ up RP to TO their PP$ normal JJ euthermic JJ activity NN temperature NN range NN , , a DT process NN that WDT requires VVZ a DT great JJ deal NN of IN energy NN . SENT After IN sleeping VVG for IN about IN 12 CD 18 CD h NN at IN euthermic JJ temperatures NNS , , they PP re IN enter VV deep JJ torpor NN . SENT The DT paradox NN centers NNS around IN the DT failure NN to TO conserve VV even RB more JJR energy NN by IN remaining VVG in IN deep JJ torpor NN throughout IN the DT entire JJ winter NN . SENT Its PP$ resolution NN is VBZ thought VVN to TO lie VV in IN the DT circumstance NN that IN the DT normal JJ restorative JJ functions NNS of IN sleep NN do VVP not RB occur VV at IN the DT low JJ brain NN temperatures NNS of IN deep JJ torpor NN , , so RB that IN a DT sleep NN debt NN accumulates VVZ . SENT This DT debt NN has VHZ to TO be VB discharged VVN during IN the DT sleep NN obtained VVN on IN periodic JJ returns NNS to TO euthermic JJ body NN temperatures NNS 7 CD , , 24 CD and CC 49 CD . SENT From IN the DT perspective NN of IN the DT need NN for IN DS NP of IN circuitry NN during IN sleep NN , , a DT more RBR specific JJ proposal NN can MD be VB made VVN , , as RB follows VVZ . SENT One CD to TO three CD weeks NNS at IN 2 CD to TO 5 CD C NP is VBZ the DT longest JJS period NN for IN which WDT circuits NNS for IN most JJS memories NNS can MD remain VV in IN functional JJ states NNS in IN the DT total JJ absence NN of IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP . SENT During IN the DT phase NN of IN resumption NN of IN euthermic JJ temperatures NNS with IN 12 CD 18 CD h NN of IN sleep NN , , the DT efficacies NNS of IN synapses NNS in IN these DT circuits NNS are VBP refreshed VVN by IN DS NP . SENT Afterwards RB the DT circuits NNS can MD be VB sustained VVN in IN functional JJ states NNS for IN another DT 1 CD 3 CD weeks NNS before IN once RB again RB requiring VVG to TO be VB reinforced VVN . SENT In IN a DT sense NN , , the DT animals NNS at IN the DT low JJ temperatures NNS of IN deep JJ torpor NN approximate JJ a DT return NN to TO cold JJ bloodedness NN . SENT In IN this DT condition NN the DT ancillary JJ benefits NNS of IN sleep NN perhaps RB can MD be VB dispensed VVD with IN , , as RB in IN many JJ ectothermic JJ vertebrates NNS , , but CC the DT primal JJ function NN of IN sleep NN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN memory NN circuitry NN is VBZ indispensable JJ . SENT Were VBD the DT animals NNS to TO remain VV in IN deep JJ torpor NN for IN longer JJR than IN 1 CD 3 CD weeks NNS without IN refreshment NN of IN the DT synaptic JJ efficacies NNS of IN unused JJ memory NN circuits NNS , , the DT circuits NNS probably RB would MD become VV incompetent JJ beyond IN recovery NN . SENT 8 CD . SENT Dreaming VVG 8 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Dream NN genesis NN and CC significanceViewed JJ from IN the DT perspective NN of IN the DT paradigm NN of IN functional JJ and CC non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP , , certain JJ implications NNS emerge VVP concerning VVG the DT origin NN , , content NN , , significance NN , , and CC evanescent JJ nature NN of IN dreams NNS 63 CD and CC 64 CD . SENT Only RB those DT implications NNS that WDT are VBP pertinent JJ to TO the DT present JJ treatment NN are VBP dealt VVN with IN here RB . SENT The DT view NN championed VVN by IN Hobson NP and CC McCarley NP 50 CD and CC 52 CD , , and CC also RB espoused VVN by IN Greenberg NP 42 CD and CC Antrobus NP 2 CD and CC 3 CD , , is VBZ that DT dreaming VVG is VBZ a DT by IN product NN of IN , , and CC tightly RB linked VVN to TO , , the DT mental JJ activities NNS that WDT normally RB occur VVP during IN REM NP sleep NN . SENT Implications NNS of IN the DT paradigm NN of IN DS NP are VBP consonant NN with IN the DT above RB cited VVN views NNS , , specifying VVG the DT mental JJ activities NNS as IN being VBG the DT consolidation NN and CC reinforcement NN of IN circuits NNS encoding VVG memories NNS , , but CC not RB restricting VVG the DT activities NNS to TO REM NP sleep NN . SENT Expressed VVN from IN another DT point NN of IN view NN by IN Llin NP s PP and CC Par NP 69 CD , , REM NP sleep NN can MD be VB considered VVN as IN a DT modified JJ attentive JJ state NN in IN which WDT attention NN is VBZ turned VVN away RB from IN the DT sensory JJ input NN , , toward IN memories NNS . SENT The DT attention NN would MD appear VV to TO consist VV of IN reinforcement NN of IN memory NN circuits NNS , , with IN motor NN circuitry NN being VBG reinforced VVN primarily RB during IN REM NP sleep NN 62 CD , , 63 CD and CC 64 CD . SENT The DT large JJ role NN played VVN by IN motor NN activity NN in IN dreams NNS , , most JJS of IN which WDT occur VVP during IN REM NP sleep NN 53 CD and CC 87 CD , , is VBZ consistent JJ with IN this DT proposal NN . SENT Visual JJ memories NNS also RB must MD be VB reinforced VVN primarily RB during IN REM NP sleep NN , , because IN dreams NNS usually RB are VBP highly RB visual JJ . SENT An DT association NN of IN reinforcement NN of IN motor NN and CC visual JJ circuitry NN during IN dreaming VVG accords NNS with IN the DT existence NN of IN numerous JJ visuomotor NN neocortical JJ regions NNS 102 CD and CC 120 CD . SENT It PP can MD be VB suggested VVN that IN , , because IN of IN the DT abundance NN of IN visuomotor NN circuits NNS , , many JJ visual JJ memories NNS become VVP activated VVN by IN default NN during IN DS NP of IN the DT closely RB associated VVN motor NN components NNS , , even RB frequently RB used VVN visual JJ circuits NNS that WDT need VVP no DT non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP . SENT Foulkes NP positions NNS as RB to TO both DT dream NN genesis NN and CC significance NN are VBP similar JJ to TO those DT expressed VVN here RB and CC elsewhere RB 63 CD and CC 64 CD . SENT dreams NNS are VBP formed VVN by IN an DT arbitrary JJ , , more RBR or CC less RBR random JJ diffuse JJ mnemonic JJ activation NN of IN recent JJ and CC long JJ term NN memory NN circuits NNS that WDT accomplishes VVZ some DT information NN processing NN but CC is VBZ too RB ill RB organized VVN and CC diffuse VV to TO have VH semantic JJ or CC communicative JJ significance NN . SENT the DT particular JJ contents NNS of IN dreams NNS , , in IN and CC of IN themselves PP , , are VBP unlikely JJ to TO serve VV any DT adaptive JJ function NN 36 CD . SENT 8 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT Authentic JJ recent JJ recall NN versus IN illusoriness NN or CC deliriumThe NN tendency NN of IN dreams NNS to TO favor VV current JJ events NNS , , the DT day NN residues NNS of IN Freud NP , , which WDT occur VVP in IN 47 CD 49 CD of IN dreams NNS 46 CD , , and CC of IN these DT dreams NNS to TO be VB lengthily RB coordinated VVN and CC more RBR or CC less RBR authentic JJ in IN content NN , , may MD owe VV to TO the DT integrative JJ role NN of IN the DT hippocampus NN in IN replaying VVG only RB relatively RB recent JJ events NNS to TO the DT neocortex NP 62 CD and CC 63 CD . SENT Most JJS of IN these DT day NN residues NNS apparently RB are VBP stored VVN in IN the DT hippocampus NN with IN low JJ priority NN , , namely RB , , the DT ones NNS that WDT are VBP not RB replayed VVN after IN the DT first JJ night NN or CC two CD . SENT The DT illusory JJ content NN or CC delirium NN of IN dreams NNS doubtless RB traces VVZ in IN part NN to TO such JJ influences NNS as IN impaired VVN binding JJ of IN circuits NNS without IN real JJ world NN feedback NN , , as RB proposed VVN by IN Kahn NP , , Pace NP Shott NP , , and CC Hobson NP 57 CD , , and CC altered JJ alignments NNS and CC participation NN of IN circuits NNS during IN dreaming VVG as RB compared VVN to TO those DT of IN wakefulness NN , , as RB proposed VVN by IN Braun NP , , et NP al NP . SENT 14 CD . SENT The DT preponderance NN of IN authentic JJ , , ordinary JJ and CC mundane JJ dreams NNS 36 CD , , however RB , , is VBZ not RB accounted VVN for IN by IN such JJ influences NNS . SENT Authentic JJ dreams NNS presumably RB employ VVP the DT same JJ circuit NN alignments NNS and CC participation NN , , and CC with IN similarly RB impaired VVN circuit NN binding VVG without IN real JJ world NN feedback NN , , as RB do VVP illusory JJ dreams NNS . SENT The DT thesis NN proposed VVN here RB , , is VBZ that IN the DT potential NN for IN dream NN events NNS to TO be VB either RB authentic JJ or CC illusory JJ is VBZ inherent JJ in IN the DT dream NN generating NN mechanism NN , , itself PP , , that WDT is VBZ , , in IN the DT DS NP of IN memory NN circuits NNS . SENT In IN this DT connection NN , , very RB little RB is VBZ known VVN of IN the DT comparative JJ competence NN and CC priority NN for IN reinforcement NN of IN various JJ categories NNS of IN memory NN circuits NNS inherited VVN versus IN experiential JJ , , recently RB acquired VVN versus IN old JJ on IN any DT night NN when WRB sleep NN begins VVZ . SENT Presumably RB the DT vast JJ majority NN are VBP fully RB competent JJ at IN the DT time NN of IN reinforcement NN , , and CC merely RB have VH their PP$ competence NN extended VVN for IN days NNS to TO weeks NNS at IN a DT time NN . SENT Some DT experiential JJ memories NNS of IN the DT distant JJ past NN , , at IN least JJS , , must MD be VB in IN various JJ temporary JJ or CC permanent JJ states NNS of IN partial JJ efficacy NN decay NN , , with IN their PP$ information NN content NN incomplete JJ , , garbled VVD , , or CC distorted JJ . SENT Additionally RB , , inasmuch RB as IN the DT various JJ self NN initiated VVD brain NN waves NNS that WDT achieve VVP non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP are VBP predominantly RB of IN low JJ frequency NN , , and CC persist VV for IN long JJ periods NNS during IN every DT night's NNS sleep VVP , , it PP is VBZ not RB unlikely JJ that IN refreshment NN of IN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS occurs VVZ in IN small JJ steps NNS over IN lengthy JJ periods NNS . SENT Such JJ stepwise JJ refreshment NN of IN some DT experiential JJ memories NNS of IN the DT distant JJ past NN , , requiring VVG lengthy JJ periods NNS and CC having VHG low JJ priority NN , , might MD account VV for IN the DT persistence NN of IN some DT circuits NNS in IN various JJ states NNS of IN temporary JJ incompetence NN . SENT Explicit JJ recognition NN of IN these DT possible JJ circumstances NNS may MD help VV to TO account VV for IN some DT healthy JJ and CC pathological JJ mental JJ phenomena NNS see VVP below IN and CC Section NP 11 CD . SENT On IN these DT assumptions NNS , , the DT synaptic JJ activations NNS of IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP that WDT lead VVP to TO dreams NNS of IN authentic JJ content NN might MD be VB those DT of IN newly RB consolidated JJ circuits NNS , , and CC other JJ circuits NNS with IN fully RB refreshed VVN or CC not RB yet RB weakened VVN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS . SENT The DT inauthentic JJ or CC illusory JJ content NN of IN some DT dreams NNS may MD owe VV to TO playback VV from IN older JJR , , incompetent JJ circuits NNS , , in IN which WDT some DT efficacy NN values NNS have VHP weakened VVN . SENT Such JJ circumstances NNS are VBP consistent JJ with IN the DT strong JJ tendency NN toward IN authentic JJ dream NN recall NN of IN recent JJ events NNS , , and CC tendencies NNS toward IN illusory JJ events NNS in IN dreams NNS of IN the DT more RBR distant JJ past NN . SENT In IN this DT connection NN , , 68 CD of IN adult NN dreams NNS contain VVP central JJ features NNS directly RB reminiscent JJ of IN childhood NN experiences NNS 54 CD . SENT 9 CD . SENT DeliriumDelirium NP is VBZ the DT most RBS frequently RB occurring VVG non JJ specific JJ , , acute JJ , , organic JJ , , psychiatric JJ syndrome NN , , for IN which WDT older JJR people NNS are VBP at IN greatest JJS risk NN . SENT Toxic JJ metabolic JJ disorders NNS are VBP the DT most RBS common JJ cause NN . SENT Clouding VVG of IN consciousness NN , , fluctuating VVG over IN the DT course NN of IN a DT day NN , , is VBZ its PP$ hallmark NN . SENT Onset NN of IN symptoms NNS usually RB is VBZ acute JJ and CC worse JJR at IN night NN , , when WRB agitated VVN behavior NN and CC visual JJ hallucinations NNS are VBP most RBS likely JJ to TO occur VV . SENT Insomnia NN , , nightmares NNS , , intermittent JJ night NN time NN disorientation NN , , and CC anxiety NN appear VVP first JJ , , gradually RB progressing VVG to TO full JJ blown VVN delirium NN . SENT Autonomic JJ and CC other JJ neurological JJ signs NNS accompany VV visual JJ and CC tactile JJ hallucinations NNS . SENT Associated JJ features NNS include VVP purposeless JJ movements NNS of IN arms NNS and CC legs NNS and CC multifocal JJ myoclonus NN most RBS often RB in IN facial JJ and CC shoulder NN muscles NNS and CC tremor NN . SENT Symptoms NNS characteristically RB are VBP global JJ and CC of IN relatively RB brief JJ duration NN . SENT Delirium NN usually RB is VBZ a DT medical JJ emergency NN . SENT Delirious JJ patients NNS , , particularly RB if IN under IN 40 CD , , are VBP predisposed VVN to TO early JJ death NN , , with IN fatality NN rates NNS 7 CD 12 CD twice RB those DT of IN control NN groups NNS 111 CD . SENT The DT Scottish JJ royal NN physician NN , , W NP . SENT Cullen NP 23 CD , , was VBD the DT first JJ , , in IN the DT 18 CD th NN century NN , , to TO remark VV on IN the DT similarity NN of IN dreaming VVG to TO delirium NN . SENT There EX are VBP in IN this DT state NN dreaming VVG false JJ perceptions NNS , , false JJ associations NNS , , false JJ judgements NNS , , and CC disproportionate JJ emotions NNS . SENT in IN short RB all PDT the DT circumstances NNS by IN which WDT I PP have VHP above RB defined VVN delirium NN . SENT Today NN , , we PP make VVP an DT even RB stronger JJR connection NN between IN the DT two CD phenomena NNS . SENT Thus RB , , . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT dreaming VVG is VBZ more JJR like IN organic JJ delirium NN than IN any DT other JJ pathological JJ condition NN of IN the DT mind NN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT the DT common JJ features NNS of IN normal JJ dreaming VVG , , a DT healthy JJ psychosis NN and CC abnormal JJ delirium NN are VBP disorientation NN , , inattention NN , , impoverished JJ memory NN , , confabulation NN , , visual JJ hallucinations NNS , , and CC abundant JJ emotions NNS 51 CD and CC 54 CD . SENT Coupling NN this DT conclusion NN with IN the DT above JJ analysis NN , , it PP is VBZ proposed VVN that IN a DT breakdown NN of IN normal JJ regimens NNS of IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP i NP . SENT e SYM . SENT , , any DT deviation NN from IN timing NN , , magnitude NN , , distribution NN , , etc FW . SENT , , of IN normal JJ waveforms NNS of IN certain JJ categories NNS of IN memory NN circuits NNS , , leaving VVG many JJ with IN synapses NNS in IN incompletely RB restored VVN and CC or CC pathologically RB altered VVN states NNS of IN efficacy NN , , leads VVZ to TO organic JJ delirium NN . SENT Bleuler NP 11 CD and CC Kelly NP 66 CD propose VV a DT different JJ , , but CC not RB incompatible JJ , , interpretation NN , , specifically RB , , that IN delusions NNS of IN schizophrenics NNS have VHP their PP$ origin NN in IN remembered VVN illusory JJ dreams NNS that IN masquerade NN as IN authentic JJ experiences NNS . SENT However RB , , they PP do VVP not RB address VV the DT crucial JJ matter NN of IN how WRB neural JJ circuitry NN evolved VVD largely RB for IN the DT storage NN and CC maintenance NN of IN authentic JJ information NN becomes VVZ subverted VVN to TO produce VV cognition NN that WDT includes VVZ fanciful JJ components NNS . SENT Viewing VVG many JJ illusory JJ dreams NNS as IN the DT consequence NN of IN DS NP of IN circuits NNS with IN incompletely RB restored VVN or CC otherwise RB altered VVN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS , , it PP can MD be VB suggested VVN that IN some DT other JJ psychoses NNS than IN delirium NN also RB result NN from IN a DT breakdown NN of IN normal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP . SENT The DT proposed VVN breakdown NN would MD leave VV certain JJ categories NNS of IN neural JJ circuits NNS in IN an DT incompetent JJ state NN , , with IN efficacies NNS of IN some DT synapses NNS disrupted VVN or CC incompletely RB restored VVN . SENT This DT incompetence NN , , of IN course NN , , would MD become VV most RBS evident JJ in IN circuits NNS that WDT are VBP in IN frequent JJ use NN , , particularly RB cognitive JJ and CC sensory JJ circuits NNS . SENT Use NN of IN these DT incompetent JJ circuits NNS during IN wakefulness NN presumably RB gives VVZ rise NN to TO the DT same JJ illusory JJ thoughts NNS and CC perceptions NNS hallucinations NNS that WDT occur VVP in IN dreams NNS that WDT result VVP when WRB similarly RB incompetent JJ circuits NNS are VBP activated VVN during IN sleep NN . SENT 9 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT Delirium NN and CC the DT specific JJ remedial JJ effects NNS of IN electroconvulsive JJ therapyECT NN is VBZ of IN great JJ clinical JJ use NN for IN organic JJ delirium NN . SENT for IN delirium NN tremens NNS , , even RB a DT single JJ use NN can MD be VB life NN saving NN . SENT The DT key JJ action NN of IN ECT NN and CC pharmacoconvulsive JJ therapy NN is VBZ known VVN to TO be VB the DT production NN of IN a DT generalized VVN motor NN type NN seizure NN within IN the DT brain NN , , quite RB independently RB of IN whether IN the DT seizure NN is VBZ accompanied VVN by IN motor NN convulsive JJ responses NNS 111 CD , , 129 CD and CC 130 CD . SENT Taking VVG these DT considerations NNS into IN account NN , , it PP is VBZ proposed VVN that IN the DT specific JJ remedial JJ influences NNS of IN these DT therapies NNS hinges NNS upon IN their PP$ restoration NN of IN dedicated JJ synaptic JJ efficacies NNS in IN incompetent JJ circuits NNS through IN remedial JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP that WDT accompany VV and CC follow VV the DT brain NN seizures NNS . SENT Inasmuch RB as IN the DT regimens NNS of IN DS NP that WDT accompany VV seizures NNS are VBP induced VVN by IN external JJ means NNS and CC may MD not RB be VB typical JJ , , may MD not RB target VV circuits NNS in IN the DT normal JJ manner NN , , and CC are VBP not RB sustained VVN as IN lengthily RB as RB during IN sleep NN , , it PP is VBZ not RB surprising JJ that IN the DT seizures NNS of IN ECT NNS sometimes RB cause VVP adverse JJ side NN effects NNS , , and CC that IN therapeutic JJ effects NNS usually RB are VBP not RB long RB lasting JJ without IN repeated JJ treatments NNS . SENT Amnesia NN , , for IN example NN , , appears VVZ to TO be VB a DT side NN effect NN , , consequent JJ upon IN disruptions NNS of IN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS in IN certain JJ memory NN circuits NNS from IN their PP$ dedicated JJ values NNS , , brought VVD about RB largely RB by IN the DT electrical JJ shock NN employed VVN to TO induce VV ECT NN . SENT The DT prevailing JJ view NN is VBZ that IN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT memory NN impairment NN is VBZ mainly RB determined VVN by IN the DT amount NN of IN electrical JJ current NN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT 28 CD . SENT The DT length NN of IN time NN required VVN for IN normal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP of IN these DT specific JJ amnesic JJ circuits NNS which WDT were VBD not RB involved VVN in IN the DT original JJ delirium NN to TO achieve VV memory NN recovery NN during IN subsequent JJ sleep NN probably RB depends VVZ on IN the DT degree NN to TO which WDT synaptic JJ efficacies NNS were VBD disrupted VVN by IN the DT ECT JJ shock NN . SENT This DT proposed VVN mechanism NN of IN achievement NN of IN specific JJ remedial JJ effects NNS of IN ECT JJ induction NN of IN remedial JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP in IN incompetent JJ circuitry NN during IN and CC following VVG seizures NNS has VHZ the DT potential NN to TO resolve VV some DT of IN the DT classical JJ problems NNS of IN ECT NN . SENT These DT involve VVP . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT identifying VVG those DT changes NNS that WDT were VBD in IN the DT therapeutic JJ chain NN , , that WDT changed VVD over IN time NN in IN parallel NN with IN the DT changes NNS in IN mood NN and CC affect VV , , and CC that WDT persisted VVD with IN a DT time NN course NN that WDT could MD be VB related VVN to TO the DT persistence NN of IN the DT behavioral JJ effects NNS 34 CD . SENT The DT specific JJ remedial JJ effects NNS of IN ECT NN previously RB were VBD attributed VVN primarily RB to TO the DT cerebral JJ biochemical JJ events NNS that WDT unfold VV in IN consequence NN of IN the DT seizure NN s PP 33 RB . SENT From IN the DT present JJ perspectives NNS , , for IN delirium NN , , at IN least JJS , , the DT gradual JJ post NN treatment NN decay NN from IN therapeutically RB re IN established JJ synaptic JJ efficacy NN values NNS to TO deviant JJ pathological JJ values NNS would MD be VB the DT consequence NN of IN a DT failure NN to TO achieve VV normal JJ refreshment NN of IN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS because IN of IN the DT persistence NN of IN the DT causative JJ abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP during IN sleep NN . SENT This DT scheme NN of IN remediation NN also RB could MD help VV to TO account VV for IN the DT equal JJ effectiveness NN of IN ECT NN for IN both DT severe JJ mania NN and CC severe JJ depression NN , , clinically RB assumed VVN to TO be VB . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT opposing VVG neurohumoral JJ pathologic JJ processes NNS 34 CD . SENT It PP also RB is VBZ consistent JJ with IN the DT exertion NN of IN a DT specific JJ antidelirium NN effect NN on IN underlying VVG pathophysiological JJ mechanisms NNS in IN at IN least JJS some DT conditions NNS , , including VVG delirium NN tremens NNS , , typhoid JJ catatonia NN , , CNS NP syphilis NN , , and CC phencyclidine NN psychosis NN 129 CD , , and CC the DT need NN for IN a DT period NN of IN maturation NN of IN ECT JJ effects NNS 33 CD . SENT It PP was VBD noted VVN above IN that IN the DT brain NN waves NNS that WDT accomplish VV DS NP during IN sleep NN are VBP predominantly RB at IN low JJ frequencies NNS below IN 14 CD Hz NP . SENT Thus RB , , the DT nature NN of IN the DT remedial JJ brain NN waves NNS induced VVN by IN ECT NN is VBZ of IN interest NN . SENT The DT typical JJ electrophysiological JJ response NN in IN the DT brain NN after IN ECT NP is VBZ an DT initial JJ , , brief JJ 0 CD . SENT 5 CD 1 CD . SENT 0 CD s PP expression NN of IN high JJ voltage NN , , high JJ frequency NN electrical JJ activity NN followed VVN by IN extended JJ rhythmic JJ slow JJ wave NN activity NN , , ending VVG abruptly RB with IN a DT period NN of IN EEG NP silence NN 33 CD . SENT Most JJS of IN the DT EEG NP energy NN occurs VVZ in IN the DT delta JJ waves NNS at IN 3 CD Hz NP , , which WDT are VBP suspected VVN to TO be VB crucial JJ to TO the DT therapeutic JJ effect NN 35 CD and CC 114 CD . SENT The DT increase NN in IN amplitude NN and CC building VVG up RP of IN slow JJ waves NNS both CC delta NN and CC theta NN is VBZ of IN longer JJR duration NN when WRB a DT series NN of IN treatments NNS are VBP given VVN , , and CC tends VVZ to TO be VB non JJ specific NN to TO a DT variety NN of IN neuropathologies NNS 130 CD . SENT Usually RB , , after IN 3 CD or CC 4 CD treatments NNS at IN 2 CD 3 CD day NN intervals NNS , , slow JJ waves NNS fail VVP to TO disappear VV completely RB . SENT Subsequent JJ treatments NNS result NN in IN the DT slow JJ wave NN activity NN becoming VVG more RBR widespread JJ , , of IN higher JJR amplitude NN and CC lower JJR frequency NN , , while IN the DT alpha NN rhythm NN becomes VVZ disturbed VVN and CC may MD disappear VV . SENT At IN a DT variable JJ period NN after IN treatments NNS are VBP terminated VVN , , the DT delta JJ rhythm NN gives VVZ way NN to TO theta NN activity NN , , and CC prolonged JJ , , synchronous JJ alpha NN activity NN re NN emerges VVZ . SENT Finally RB , , the DT EEG NP returns NNS to TO its PP$ pre NP ECT NN state NN 67 CD . SENT 10 CD . SENT Sparing VVG of IN sensory JJ circuitry NN in IN fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN 10 CD . SENT 1 CD . SENT General NP considerationsFFI NP is VBZ an DT inherited VVN , , rapidly RB progressing VVG , , neurodegenerative JJ , , multisystem NN , , prion NN disease NN a DT subacute JJ spongiform JJ encephalopathy NN . SENT Sleep NN loss NN associated VVN with IN FFI NP correlates VVZ best JJS with IN a DT consistent JJ , , severe JJ atrophy NN severe JJ cell NN loss NN , , usually RB well RB over IN 50 CD of IN the DT anteroventral JJ and CC mediodorsal JJ thalamic JJ nuclei NNS and CC frequent JJ atrophy NN of IN the DT centromedial JJ and CC puvinar JJ nuclei NNS 73 CD and CC 121 CD . SENT The DT disease NN has VHZ very RB complex JJ , , multisystem NN effects NNS . SENT The DT immediate JJ cause NN of IN death NN of IN FFI NP patients NNS is VBZ uncertain JJ but CC it PP is VBZ unlikely JJ to TO be VB solely RB the DT insomnia NN . SENT The DT inability NN of IN patients NNS to TO recover VV from IN their PP$ malignant JJ insomnia NN , , and CC the DT autonomic JJ impairments NNS , , suggest VVP the DT additional JJ involvement NN of IN progressive JJ functional JJ deficits NNS in IN non JJ thalamic JJ brain NN structures NNS 88 CD and CC 115 CD . SENT The DT symptomatology NN of IN FFI NP is VBZ of IN particular JJ interest NN in IN respect NN to TO the DT brain's NNS need VVP to TO refresh VV synaptic JJ efficacies NNS in IN infrequently RB used VVN memory NN circuitry NN . SENT Recognizing VVG the DT strong JJ tendency NN of IN living VVG systems NNS to TO compensate VV for IN disease NN state NN abnormalities NNS , , one PP expects VVZ a DT number NN of IN manifestations NNS of IN compensatory JJ tendencies NNS to TO appear VV in IN FFI NP patients NNS . SENT For IN example NN , , with IN the DT curtailment NN of IN sleep NN , , one PP anticipates VVZ a DT tendency NN to TO achieve VV some DT compensatory JJ non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN circuitry NN while IN awake RB . SENT In IN normal JJ circumstances NNS , , circuit NN outputs NNS either CC are VBP blocked VVN during IN sleep NN or CC their PP$ activations NNS become VV manifested VVN only RB as IN inconsequential JJ phasic JJ events NNS 63 CD and CC 64 CD , , dreams NNS , , and CC other JJ sleep NN mentation NN . SENT As IN these DT outputs NNS usually RB are VBP not RB blocked VVN during IN wakefulness NN , , the DT compensatory JJ DS NP might MD lead VV to TO activation NN of IN the DT corresponding JJ circuit NN functions NNS in IN awake JJ FFI NP patients NNS , , including VVG motor NN and CC cognitive JJ processes NNS . SENT Moreover RB , , during IN the DT ever RB shorter JJR episodes NNS of IN sleep NN , , one PP expects VVZ the DT manifestations NNS of IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP to TO be VB more RBR intense JJ , , just RB as RB , , for IN example NN , , the DT phenomena NNS occurring VVG during IN REM NP sleep NN become VVN more RBR intense JJ when WRB REM NP sleep NN time NN is VBZ restricted JJ 100 CD . SENT One PP also RB would MD anticipate VV signs NNS of IN deficits NNS in IN some DT of IN the DT functions NNS of IN circuitry NN normally RB reinforced VVD during IN sleep NN . SENT Lastly RB , , there EX is VBZ reason NN to TO expect VV sensory JJ systems NNS to TO be VB spared VVN , , as IN their PP$ circuits NNS would MD continue VV to TO receive VV functional JJ DS NP . SENT In IN fact NN , , they PP should MD receive VV supernormal JJ amounts NNS of IN functional JJ DS NP , , because IN the DT further RBR the DT course NN of IN the DT disease NN , , with IN progressively RB less JJR sleep NN and CC greater JJR wakefulness NN , , the DT greater JJR the DT amount NN of IN use NN they PP would MD receive VV . SENT These DT expectations NNS are VBP largely RB fulfilled VVN . SENT 10 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT Specific JJ manifestations NNS and CC proposed VVN relationshipsThe NNS commonly RB noted VVD specific JJ symptoms NNS of IN FFI NP are VBP as RB follows VVZ . SENT There EX is VBZ impairment NN of IN all DT forms NNS of IN memory NN , , attention NN , , vigilance NN , , and CC visuomotor NN performance NN , , and CC other JJ losses NNS of IN higher JJR levels NNS of IN cognitive JJ function NN , , with IN signs NNS of IN dementia NN in IN late JJ stages NNS . SENT Dreams NNS during IN actual JJ sleep NN episodes NNS are VBP very RB vivid JJ and CC enacted VVN , , that WDT is VBZ , , they PP are VBP accompanied VVN by IN complex JJ gestures NNS and CC many JJ other JJ fully RB manifested VVN movements NNS of IN the DT head NN , , trunk NN , , limbs NNS , , and CC fingers NNS . SENT These DT closely RB mimic VVP dream NN content NN and CC tend VVP to TO intrude VV spontaneously RB on IN wakefulness NN . SENT Wakefulness NN typically RB is VBZ interspersed VVN with IN complex JJ hallucinations NNS that WDT often RB consist VVP of IN enacted VVN dream NN like IN episodes NNS 17 CD , , 38 CD , , 89 CD and CC 90 CD . SENT There EX also RB are VBP irregular JJ muscular JJ jerks NNS and CC fine JJ tremors NNS of IN the DT arms NNS , , a DT clumsy JJ gait NN progressing VVG to TO inability NN to TO stand VV or CC walk VV brisk JJ reflexes NNS , , Babinski's NP sign NN , , spontaneous JJ movements NNS of IN the DT head NN , , spasms NNS in IN the DT limbs NNS and CC digits NNS , , severe JJ irregularities NNS of IN heartbeat NN and CC breathing NN impaired VVN , , with IN apnea NN , , difficulties NNS in IN speaking VVG progressing VVG to TO unintelligibility NN incontinence NN , , increased VVN lacrimation NN , , salivation NN , , and CC sweating VVG , , saccadic JJ eye NN movements NNS , , and CC eventual JJ widespread JJ continuous JJ muscle NN spasms NNS . SENT Most RBS pertinent JJ to TO this DT analysis NN , , the DT sensory JJ systems NNS remain VVP unimpaired JJ by IN the DT disease NN . SENT For IN example NN , , visual JJ and CC somatosensory JJ evoked VVN potentials NNS are VBP normal JJ , , and CC geniculate JJ nuclei NNS , , which WDT play VVP a DT large JJ role NN in IN visual JJ sensory JJ processing NN , , often RB are VBP minimally RB affected VVN 17 CD , , 38 CD , , 89 CD and CC 90 CD . SENT This DT more JJR than IN normal JJ use NN of IN the DT senses NNS during IN insomnia NN apparently RB has VHZ a DT protective JJ effect NN on IN sensory JJ systems NNS , , that WDT is VBZ , , supernormal JJ functional JJ DS NP of IN sensory JJ circuitry NN may MD retard VV or CC inhibit VV plaque NN formation NN in IN neurons NNS . SENT A DT similar JJ conclusion NN has VHZ been VBN reached VVN from IN studies NNS of IN Alzheimer NP patients NNS , , from IN which WDT it PP was VBD concluded VVN that IN an DT active JJ intellect NN i NP . SENT e SYM . SENT , , supernormal JJ functional JJ DS NP of IN cognitive JJ circuitry NN appears VVZ to TO protect VV against IN dementia NN in IN the DT elderly JJ 112 CD . SENT The DT existence NN of IN such PDT a DT protective JJ effect NN of IN supernormal JJ use NN of IN circuitry NN in IN FFI NP raises VVZ another DT possibility NN . SENT The DT basis NN for IN the DT generally RB increasing VVG vulnerability NN of IN nervous JJ systems NNS to TO plaque NN formation NN with IN advancing VVG age NN in IN prion NN spongiform JJ encephalopathies NNS , , such JJ as IN kuru NN , , Creutzfeldt NP Jakob NP disease NN , , and CC the DT Gerstmann NP Str NP ussler NP Scheinker NP syndrome NN 17 CD , , 38 CD and CC 89 CD , , may MD be VB lesser JJR use NN , , that WDT is VBZ , , subnormal JJ amounts NNS of IN functional JJ DS NP of IN some DT neural JJ circuitry NN . SENT In IN view NN of IN the DT increasingly RB severe JJ , , widespread JJ , , multisystem JJ , , debilitating JJ and CC incapacitating VVG functional JJ failures NNS in IN FFI NP , , in IN which WDT patients NNS lose VVP all DT voluntary JJ capabilities NNS , , and CC even RB autonomic JJ functions NNS ever RB increasingly RB fail VV , , the DT following VVG suggestion NN can MD be VB made VVN . SENT Those DT symptoms NNS of IN FFI NP other JJ than IN the DT insomnia NN that WDT are VBP not RB shared VVN with IN other JJ prion NN spongiform JJ encephalopathies NNS are VBP not RB solely RB direct JJ consequences NNS of IN neurodegenerative JJ changes NNS . SENT the DT functional JJ failures NNS also RB may MD trace VV to TO indirect JJ consequences NNS of IN widespread JJ insufficiencies NNS of IN DS NP of IN neural JJ circuitry NN , , largely RB non JJ utilitarian JJ and CC resulting VVG primarily RB from IN the DT inability NN to TO sleep VV . SENT The DT death NN of IN totally RB sleep VV derived VVN rats NNS 32 CD and CC 95 CD may MD trace VV to TO functional JJ failures NNS of IN the DT same JJ origin NN . SENT 10 CD . SENT 3 LS . SENT Contrast NN with IN encephalitis NN lethargicaHaving NN considered VVD a DT greatly RB debilitating JJ disease NN in IN which WDT little JJ or CC no DT sleep NN can MD have VH a DT strikingly RB protective JJ effect NN on IN neural JJ circuitry NN , , a DT contrary JJ situation NN becomes VVZ of IN considerable JJ interest NN . SENT This DT concerns VVZ another DT greatly RB debilitating JJ disease NN , , encephalitis NN lethargica NN also RB known VVN as IN sleeping VVG sickness NN , , epidemic NN stupor NN , , and CC von NP Economo's NP disease NN , , in IN which WDT , , contrariwise RB , , it PP is VBZ excessive JJ sleep NN that WDT has VHZ a DT strikingly RB protective JJ effect NN on IN neural JJ circuitry NN . SENT Both DT effects NNS seemingly RB owe VVP to TO supernormal JJ DS NP , , functional JJ for IN FFI NP but CC non JJ utilitarian JJ for IN encephalitis NN lethargica NN . SENT Although IN evidence NN that IN the DT major JJ EEG NP effectors NNS of IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP are VBP slow JJ waves NNS has VHZ come VVN from IN experimental JJ studies NNS see VVP , , Section NP 2 CD . SENT 1 CD , , this DT relationship NN also RB might MD have VH been VBN deduced VVN from IN symptoms NNS and CC sequelae NNS of IN encephalitis NN lethargica NN . SENT In IN its PP$ commonest JJS , , hypersomnolent JJ form NN , , patients NNS lapse NN into IN a DT catatonic JJ stupor NN that WDT may MD last VV for IN weeks NNS or CC months NNS interrupted VVN by IN forced VVN arousals NNS for IN eating VVG and CC eliminating VVG . SENT The DT EEG NP is VBZ described VVN as IN diffuse JJ , , asynchronous JJ delta NN and CC theta NN activity NN or CC simply RB diffuse VV slow JJ wave NN activity NN . SENT Many JJ patients NNS recover VVP completely RB , , but CC postencephalitic JJ parkinsonism NN of IN long JJ latency NN is VBZ the DT commonest JJS 60 CD sequel NN 13 CD , , 56 CD , , 103 CD , , 107 CD and CC 128 CD . SENT Except IN in IN children NNS and CC adolescents NNS , , in IN which WDT mental JJ development NN is VBZ arrested VVN 26 CD , , o NN ne RB thing NN , , and CC one CD alone RB , , was VBD usually RB spared VVN amid IN the DT ravages NNS of IN this DT otherwise RB engulfing VVG disease NN . SENT the DT higher JJR faculties NNS intelligence NN , , imagination NN , , judgement NN , , and CC humour VV 107 CD . SENT These DT circumstances NNS , , thus RB , , are VBP in IN accord NN with IN the DT thesis NN that IN DS NP of IN memory NN circuits NNS is VBZ effected VVN primarily RB by IN EEG NP slow JJ waves NNS . SENT Cognitive JJ functions NNS would MD appear VV to TO be VB preserved VVN in IN this DT disease NN state NN by IN the DT supernormal JJ non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN cognitive JJ circuitry NN during IN the DT lengthy JJ periods NNS of IN hypersomnia NN . SENT 11 CD . SENT DiscussionReasoning VVG from IN the DT premise NN that IN some DT circuitry NN undergoing VVG DS NP during IN sleep NN is VBZ partially RB degraded VVN , , with IN inauthentic JJ stored VVN information NN , , leads VVZ to TO potentially RB significant JJ conclusions NNS . SENT Not RB only RB could MD it PP account VVP for IN the DT healthy JJ psychosis NN of IN illusory JJ dreaming VVG and CC hallucinations NNS after IN sleep NN deprivation NN and CC provide VV a DT foundation NN for IN understanding VVG the DT genesis NN of IN healthy JJ delirium NN and CC some DT mental JJ disorders NNS , , it PP could MD lead VV to TO an DT extension NN of IN knowledge NN of IN the DT fundamentals NNS of IN synaptic JJ efficacy NN refreshment NN . SENT In IN the DT latter JJ connection NN , , with IN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS being VBG able JJ to TO depart VV from IN their PP$ dedicated JJ functional JJ values NNS those DT that WDT produce VVP authentic JJ memories NNS , , synapses NNS may MD have VH set VVN point NN mechanisms NNS that WDT define VV these DT dedicated JJ efficacy NN values NNS , , below IN which WDT contained VVD information NN is VBZ degraded VVN . SENT The DT set VVN points NNS may MD either RB limit VV remedial JJ efficacy NN increases NNS to TO the DT attainment NN of IN these DT values NNS or CC , , possibly RB , , only RB define VV minimum JJ values NNS . SENT We PP have VHP no DT information NN on IN how WRB the DT efficacy NN enhancements NNS by IN DS NP relate VVP quantitatively RB to TO the DT type NN of IN synaptic JJ plasticity NN that IN originally RB established VVN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS for IN dedicated JJ functions NNS . SENT Assuming VVG that IN the DT slow JJ waves NNS that WDT accomplish VV DS NP act VV to TO enhance VV synaptic JJ efficacies NNS whether IN stimulatory JJ or CC inhibitory JJ , , it PP has VHZ been VBN suggested VVN that IN elaborate JJ controls NNS selectivity NN would MD be VB required VVN , , lest IN indiscriminate JJ DS NP reinforce VV all DT weak JJ synapses NNS , , which WDT would MD negate VV the DT functional JJ value NN of IN extinguishing VVG incorrect JJ , , useless JJ , , or CC harmful JJ responses NNS 94 CD . SENT However RB , , circuits NNS in IN complex JJ brains NNS if IN not RB all DT brains NNS typically RB are VBP multifunctional JJ , , with IN neurons NNS and CC circuits NNS subserving VVG more JJR than IN one CD function NN . SENT As IN a DT result NN , , natural JJ selection NN typically RB cannot NN eliminate VV neural JJ circuitry NN for IN single JJ obsolete JJ functions NNS , , as IN that WDT also RB would MD entail VV a DT concomitant JJ loss NN of IN circuitry NN for IN many JJ adaptive JJ functions NNS . SENT Accordingly RB , , the DT typical JJ mode NN of IN elimination NN of IN maladaptive JJ responses NNS appears VVZ to TO be VB , , not RB by IN allowing VVG synapses NNS in IN their PP$ circuits NNS to TO weaken VV , , but CC , , rather RB , , through IN the DT mechanisms NNS of IN blocking VVG or CC inhibiting VVG specific JJ circuit NN outputs NNS , , or CC raising VVG activation NN thresholds NNS 61 CD . SENT If IN , , as IN proposed VVN , , some DT degraded VVN circuitry NN remains VVZ during IN active JJ wakefulness NN after IN normal JJ sleep NN , , its PP$ contents NNS must MD be VB non JJ intrusive JJ or CC not RB readily RB accessible JJ . SENT Otherwise RB , , hallucinations NNS and CC faulty JJ recall NN would MD be VB common JJ among IN normal JJ , , active JJ individuals NNS . SENT The DT evidence NN favors VVZ such PDT a DT persistence NN of IN some DT degraded VVN circuitry NN with IN non JJ intrusive JJ , , not RB readily RB accessible JJ contents NNS . SENT Thus RB , , hallucinations NNS and CC bizarre JJ mentation NN recall NN from IN degraded VVN circuitry NN are VBP possible JJ during IN periods NNS of IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN in IN the DT presence NN of IN alpha NN activity NN , , and CC can MD be VB induced VVN by IN various JJ means NNS in IN normal JJ individuals NNS 72 CD . SENT For IN example NN , , it PP is VBZ perhaps RB well RB known VVN to TO many JJ through IN self NN experiences NNS , , and CC it PP has VHZ been VBN established VVN experimentally RB , , that IN in IN reclining VVG , , relaxed VVN , , normal JJ individuals NNS , , with IN eyes NNS closed VVD or CC in IN the DT absence NN of IN patterned VVN visual JJ input NN a DT condition NN favorable JJ for IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP , , . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT thought NN is VBZ fairly RB susceptible JJ to TO momentary JJ intrusions NNS of IN bizarre JJ content NN or CC hallucination NN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT in IN a DT variety NN of IN psychophysiological JJ conditions NNS and CC without IN any DT extraordinary JJ induction NN techniques NNS 37 CD . SENT While IN results NNS of IN regression NN hypnosis NN are VBP not RB taken VVN at IN face NN value NN , , they PP also RB are VBP in IN accord NN with IN the DT view NN that IN partially RB degraded VVN circuits NNS exist VVP , , at IN least JJS among IN those DT containing VVG information NN about IN the DT distant JJ past NN . SENT For IN example NN , , when WRB adults NNS in IN a DT hypnotic JJ trance NN are VBP taken VVN back RB in IN time NN , , they PP may MD remember VV their PP$ first JJ school NN days NNS , , including VVG detailed JJ images NNS of IN classrooms NNS , , teachers NNS , , classmates NNS , , and CC even RB sounds NNS and CC feelings NNS . SENT However RB , , careful JJ verification NN attempts NNS reveal VVP that IN these DT re NN experiences NNS can MD contain VV fantasies NNS and CC inaccuracies NNS 103 CD and CC 113 CD . SENT Recall VV Wolberg's NP 131 CD admonition NN , , that IN the DT content NN of IN re NN experiences NNS emerging VVG in IN a DT trance NN should MD be VB . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT dealt VVN with IN as IN symbolic JJ offerings NNS , , very RB much RB like IN fantasies NNS or CC dreams NNS . SENT From IN the DT present JJ perspectives NNS , , the DT existence NN of IN this DT inauthentic JJ content NN of IN re NN experiences NNS could MD be VB evidence NN of IN faithful JJ recall NN , , but CC from IN partially RB degraded VVN circuitry NN . SENT Conventionally RB , , however RB , , the DT presence NN of IN inauthentic JJ content NN of IN re NN experiences NNS has VHZ been VBN taken VVN as IN evidence NN that IN the DT psyche NN smoothly RB fills VVZ up RP inconvenient JJ gaps NNS in IN the DT mental JJ image NN 103 CD and CC 113 CD . SENT With IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP being VBG the DT major JJ mechanism NN of IN consolidation NN and CC maintenance NN of IN neural JJ circuits NNS , , as IN postulated VVN , , abnormalities NNS of IN its PP$ operation NN might MD lie VV at IN the DT basis NN of IN several JJ of IN the DT mental JJ disorders NNS that WDT benefit VVP usually RB only RB temporarily RB from IN ECT NN . SENT Some DT spontaneous JJ epileptic JJ activity NN , , for IN example NN , , could MD have VH such PDT a DT basis NN , , with IN the DT abnormal JJ DS NP of IN motor NN circuitry NN , , itself PP , , inducing VVG the DT seizures NNS presumably RB , , recurrent JJ spontaneous JJ seizures NNS would MD not RB lead VV to TO progressive JJ deterioration NN . SENT Of IN interest NN in IN this DT connection NN , , during IN the DT seizures NNS that WDT accompany VV the DT abnormal JJ NREM NP sleep NN of IN patients NNS with IN generalized VVN epilepsies NNS , , sleep NN spindles NNS , , one CD of IN the DT putative JJ slow JJ wave NN effectors NNS of IN DS NP , , may MD merge VV into IN epileptiform JJ discharges NNS 27 CD . SENT As IN normal JJ DS NP of IN circuitry NN during IN sleep NN is VBZ thought VVN to TO be VB accompanied VVN by IN dreams NNS , , one PP might MD expect VV an DT induction NN of IN analogous JJ phenomena NNS by IN the DT abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP postulated VVD to TO cause VV epileptic JJ seizures NNS . SENT Indeed RB , , temporal JJ lobe NN seizures NNS and CC electrical JJ stimulation NN of IN limbic JJ structures NNS of IN the DT temporal JJ lobe NN often RB are VBP accompanied VVN by IN illusions NNS and CC hallucinations NNS . SENT These DT may MD consist VV of IN recall NN of IN a DT past JJ event NN or CC situation NN most RBS commonly RB visual JJ and CC auditory JJ a DT static JJ scene NN or CC face NN , , a DT voice NN , , music NN , , and CC usually RB more RBR vivid JJ and CC intrusive JJ than IN commonplace JJ recollections NNS 40 CD . SENT With IN few JJ exceptions NNS , , such JJ as IN for IN petit JJ mal JJ seizures NNS and CC delirium NN tremens NNS 45 CD and CC 109 CD , , abnormalities NNS in IN characteristics NNS of IN reinforcement NN accompanying VVG mental JJ disorders NNS , , which WDT even RB in IN extreme JJ cases NNS do VVP not RB affect VV all DT central JJ neural JJ circuitry NN , , apparently RB are VBP not RB of IN such PDT an DT overt JJ nature NN as RB to TO result VV in IN EEGs NNS of IN unique JJ diagnostic JJ value NN . SENT Thus RB , , . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT one CD cannot NN distinguish VV a DT patient NN with IN a DT behavioral JJ personality NN disorder NN , , an DT affective JJ disorder NN , , or CC schizophrenia NN from IN a DT normal JJ person NN . SENT . SENT . SENT . SENT none NN of IN the DT EEG NP abnormalities NNS is VBZ sufficiently RB correlated VVN with IN a DT specific JJ psychiatric JJ disorder NN to TO be VB useful JJ in IN evaluating VVG any DT individual JJ case NN . SENT But CC when WRB patients NNS are VBP compared VVN for IN localized JJ cortical JJ differences NNS , , schizophrenics NNS have VHP more JJR temporal JJ abnormalities NNS , , and CC patients NNS with IN affective JJ disorders NNS , , more JJR parieto NN occipital NN abnormalities NNS 68 CD . SENT The DT thesis NN that IN a DT breakdown NN in IN the DT normal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP of IN circuitry NN during IN sleep NN is VBZ responsible JJ for IN some DT psychoses NNS helps VVZ to TO explain VV the DT previously RB puzzling JJ findings NNS that WDT sleep VVP deprivation NN of IN any DT variety NN that WDT is VBZ , , any DT reduction NN in IN the DT amount NN of IN abnormal JJ non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP has VHZ mood NN elevating VVG effects NNS in IN patients NNS with IN affective JJ disorders NNS , , and CC that DT significant JJ rebound NN of IN mood NN depression NN occurs VVZ in RB sleep VV deprived VVN patients NNS after IN they PP obtain VVP recovery NN sleep NN 9 CD , , 39 CD and CC 132 CD . SENT These DT effects NNS tend VVP to TO support VV the DT attribution NN of IN a DT specific JJ remedial JJ influence NN of IN ECT NN on IN abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP , , and CC the DT attribution NN of IN various JJ influences NNS of IN abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP on IN mood NN . SENT In IN this DT connection NN , , ECT NP has VHZ remedial JJ effects NNS even RB in IN severe JJ depressive JJ syndromes NNS that WDT are VBP not RB responsive JJ to TO antidepressant NN drug NN regimens NNS 8 CD . SENT The DT proposed VVN remediation NN of IN abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP by IN ECT NP suggests VVZ an DT analogy NN with IN the DT remediative JJ action NN of IN cardioverter JJR defibrillators NNS on IN fibrillating VVG hearts NNS and CC tachycardia NN . SENT Just RB as IN the DT defibrillating VVG shock NN halts VVZ the DT fibrillations NNS and CC tachycardia NN , , followed VVN by IN onset NN of IN a DT normal JJ heartbeat NN rhythm NN , , the DT electric JJ shock NN of IN ECT JJ halts NNS abnormal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP of IN some DT circuitry NN , , followed VVN by IN the DT onset NN of IN remedial JJ regimens NNS . SENT in IN neither DT case NN is VBZ the DT remediation NN expected VVN to TO be VB permanent JJ . SENT Whereas IN defibrillators NNS act VVP only RB on IN local JJ circuitry NN , , and CC remediation NN rarely RB is VBZ accompanied VVN by IN adverse JJ effects NNS , , some DT ECT NN inducing VVG potentials NNS depending VVG upon IN electrode NN placement NN may MD act VV on IN the DT brain NN globally RB , , often RB also RB producing VVG temporary JJ amnesia NN or CC confusion NN . SENT These DT analogies NNS suggest VVP that IN normal JJ regimens NNS of IN DS NP are VBP intrinsic JJ to TO brain NN regions NNS as RB also RB could MD be VB concluded VVN from IN their PP$ spontaneous JJ resumption NN in IN squirrels NNS warming VVG up RP from IN torpor NN , , and CC that IN once RB abnormal JJ regimens NNS are VBP halted VVN , , the DT normal JJ ones NNS resume VV spontaneously RB , , only RB gradually RB to TO regress VV again RB under IN the DT influence NN of IN the DT underlying JJ pathology NN . SENT Analogies NNS extend VVP to TO remediation NN of IN cardiac JJ arrhythmias NNS by IN antiarrhythmic NN drugs NNS , , and CC to TO shock VV remediation NN of IN arrhythmias NNS that WDT are VBP not RB responsive JJ to TO pharmacological JJ therapy NN 71 CD . SENT The DT ability NN of IN neuromodulators NNS to TO alter VV profoundly RB the DT activity NN of IN neural JJ circuits NNS in IN invertebrates NNS supports VVZ the DT existence NN of IN analogies NNS between IN the DT remedial JJ influences NNS of IN ECT NN and CC psychopharmacological JJ agents NNS on IN regimens NNS of IN DS NP in IN mammals NNS . SENT For IN example NN , , many JJ different JJ substances NNS , , including VVG classical JJ transmitters NNS , , biogenic JJ amines NNS and CC neuropeptides NNS can MD influence VV the DT activities NNS of IN anatomically RB fixed VVN crustacean JJ stomatogastric JJ pyloric JJ and CC gastric JJ networks NNS . SENT Effects NNS include VVP altering VVG of IN firing NN frequency NN , , oscillations NNS , , phasing VVG , , duty NN cycle NN , , plateau NN potentials NNS , , and CC types NNS of IN responses NNS , , and CC exciting JJ , , inhibiting VVG , , and CC fusing VVG rhythms NNS 47 CD . SENT Moreover RB , , it PP also RB is VBZ suggestive JJ of IN the DT basis NN for IN the DT general JJ remedial JJ influences NNS of IN ECT NN , , namely RB , , reciprocal JJ influences NNS of IN the DT induced VVN brain NN waves NNS on IN the DT activities NNS of IN psychoactive JJ substances NNS . SENT The DT less JJR than IN complete JJ compatibility NN of IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP with IN visual JJ input NN processing NN during IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN was VBD postulated VVN to TO be VB one CD of IN the DT bases NNS for IN the DT need NN to TO exclude VV visual JJ input NN during IN such JJ inactivity NN , , and CC for IN the DT origin NN of IN sleep NN . SENT However RB , , the DT processes NNS are VBP not RB intrinsically RB incompatible JJ . SENT This DT is VBZ evident JJ from IN the DT occurrence NN of IN much RB synchronous JJ , , high JJ frequency NN beta NN and CC gamma NN band NN activity NN during IN sleep NN , , including VVG large JJ components NNS during IN dreaming VVG 70 CD , , which WDT is VBZ highly RB visual JJ . SENT The DT crucial JJ difference NN is VBZ that IN the DT sensory JJ information NN processing NN and CC much RB of IN the DT synchronous JJ , , high JJ frequency NN activity NN during IN quiet JJ wakefulness NN are VBP determined VVN adventitiously RB responsive JJ directly RB to TO uncontrolled JJ external JJ events NNS whereas IN the DT low JJ frequency NN activity NN that WDT accomplishes VVZ DS NP during IN sleep NN is VBZ determined VVN endogenously RB . SENT During IN sleep NN , , however RB , , because IN virtually RB all DT electrical JJ activity NN in IN the DT brain NN is VBZ initiated VVN and CC controlled VVN endogenously RB , , its PP$ occurrence NN is VBZ cooperative JJ and CC , , accordingly RB , , compatible JJ . SENT More RBR than IN merely RB being VBG compatible JJ , , high JJ frequency NN activity NN doubtless RB acts VVZ in IN concert NN with IN DS NP of IN widely RB distributed VVN circuits NNS , , combining VVG aspects NNS of IN dream NN sequences NNS provided VVN by IN the DT latter NN , , for IN visual JJ and CC non JJ visual JJ experiences NNS , , motor NN acts NNS , , mental JJ activity NN , , etc FW . SENT , , to TO produce VV fully RB manifested VVN dream NN events NNS . SENT Dreaming VVG , , then RB , , probably RB reflects VVZ not RB only RB non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN visual JJ and CC motor NN circuitry NN , , but CC also RB reinforcement NN of IN the DT mechanisms NNS that WDT combine VVP information NN in IN different JJ parts NNS of IN the DT brain NN to TO form VV thoughts NNS , , sights NNS , , and CC other JJ sensory JJ impressions NNS and CC actions NNS . SENT In IN connection NN with IN the DT above JJ , , manifestations NNS of IN the DT dichotomy NN in IN processing VVG information NN of IN exogenous JJ , , as RB opposed VVN to TO endogenous JJ , , origin NN are VBP seen VVN in IN the DT motor NN cortical JJ function NN of IN macaque NN monkeys NNS 97 CD . SENT To TO process VV a DT purely RB cognitive JJ event NN , , selected VVN groups NNS of IN distributed VVN neurons NNS in IN the DT motor NN cortex NN preferentially RB synchronize VV their PP$ individual JJ spike NN discharges NNS without IN , , at IN the DT same JJ time NN , , changing VVG their PP$ firing NN rates NNS . SENT However RB , , when WRB processing VVG an DT external JJ behaviorally NN relevant JJ event NN stimulus NN , , movement NN , , the DT neurons NNS also RB synchronize VV their PP$ individual JJ spike NN discharges NNS but CC , , at IN the DT same JJ time NN , , modulate VV their PP$ firing NN rates NNS . SENT Both DT actions NNS are VBP tightly RB connected VVN to TO the DT actual JJ occurrence NN of IN the DT stimulus NN . SENT Also RB , , presentation NN of IN auditory JJ stimuli NNS during IN waking VVG not RB only RB resets VVZ 40 CD Hz NP gamma NN band NN activity NN , , it PP also RB increases VVZ its PP$ amplitude NN 84 CD , , whereas IN during IN REM NP sleep NN , , 40 CD Hz NP activity NN is VBZ not RB reset JJ by IN auditory JJ activity NN 70 CD . SENT The DT body NN of IN reviewed VVN information NN on IN sleep NN or CC lack NN thereof RB in IN members NNS of IN several JJ vertebrate JJ classes NNS , , considered VVN together RB with IN physiological JJ , , ecological JJ , , and CC behavioral JJ attributes NNS , , lends VVZ additional JJ perspectives NNS to TO the DT roles NNS various JJ factors NNS play VVP in IN the DT need NN for IN sleep NN and CC the DT complexity NN of IN their PP$ interactions NNS . SENT The DT treatment NN of IN non JJ sleeping NN fishes NNS emphasized VVD the DT roles NNS played VVN by IN reduced JJ dependence NN on IN vision NN and CC the DT possession NN of IN relatively RB few JJ experiential JJ memories NNS . SENT Following VVG that IN , , one PP might MD have VH expected VVN that IN , , if IN any DT mammal NN could MD dispense VV with IN sleep NN after IN the DT needs NNS of IN development NN and CC maturation NN of IN the DT CNS NP were VBD fulfilled VVN , , blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC blind JJ dolphins NNS would MD be VB the DT most RBS likely JJ candidates NNS . SENT Yet RB , , even RB totally RB lacking VVG detailed JJ focal JJ vision NN , , both CC require VV sleep VV 64 CD and CC 65 CD . SENT Accordingly RB , , for IN them PP , , the DT needs NNS of IN relatively RB large JJ , , complex JJ brains NNS at IN the DT low JJ end NN of IN the DT cetacean JJ scale NN for IN the DT Indus NP river NN dolphin NN . SENT 86 CD for IN the DT refreshment NN of IN synaptic JJ efficacies NNS in IN circuits NNS that WDT process VVP and CC store VVP non JJ visual JJ memories NNS must MD play VV a DT great JJ role NN . SENT Sharks NNS also RB possess VVP well RB developed VVN , , relatively RB large JJ brains NNS , , with IN the DT relative JJ development NN of IN major JJ brain NN divisions NNS paralleling VVG those DT of IN birds NNS and CC mammals NNS 4 CD and CC 78 CD . SENT As RB with IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC blind JJ dolphins NNS , , continuously RB swimming VVG sharks NNS also RB have VHP a DT greatly RB reduced VVN dependence NN on IN visual JJ input NN 41 CD , , reduced VVN by IN schooling NN , , swimming VVG at IN night NN , , etc FW . SENT Yet RB they PP do VVP not RB sleep VV . SENT In IN addition NN to TO low JJ visual JJ input NN , , their PP$ lack NN of IN a DT need NN for IN sleep NN also RB may MD depend VV on IN much RB lesser JJR requirements NNS for IN non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN a DT relatively RB small JJ number NN of IN experiential JJ memories NNS , , as RB compared VVN to TO the DT number NN possessed VVN by IN sharks NNS that IN rest NN and CC sleep NN . SENT But CC the DT brains NNS of IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC Indus NN river NN dolphins NNS also RB must MD have VH a DT much RB lesser JJR content NN of IN experiential JJ memories NNS than IN those DT of IN sighted JJ rodents NNS and CC dolphins NNS , , yet RB they PP require VVP sleep NN . SENT The DT clue NN to TO the DT probable JJ basis NN for IN the DT need NN for IN sleep NN in IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC blind JJ dolphins NNS , , but CC not RB in IN the DT sharks NNS , , is VBZ suggested VVN by IN findings NNS with IN hibernating VVG ground NN squirrels NNS . SENT only RB at IN the DT greatly RB reduced VVN metabolic JJ rates NNS of IN deep JJ torpor NN are VBP needs NNS for IN reinforcement NN of IN mammalian JJ brain NN circuits NNS sufficiently RB reduced VVD to TO allow VV sleep VV to TO be VB dispensed VVD with IN lengthily RB . SENT Accordingly RB , , the DT basis NN for IN the DT lack NN of IN a DT need NN for IN sleep NN in IN some DT sharks NNS , , but CC a DT need NN by IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC dolphins NNS may MD lie VV in IN the DT lower JJR level NN of IN metabolism NN of IN shark NN brains NNS . SENT Why WRB , , then RB , , is VBZ sleep VV also RB absent JJ in IN partially RB warm JJ blooded JJ fishes NNS principally RB lamnoid JJ sharks NNS and CC tunas NNS , , considering VVG that IN metabolic JJ rates NNS in IN their PP$ brains NNS also RB are VBP at IN a DT high JJ level NN 12 CD and CC 48 CD . SENT Several JJ possible JJ , , non JJ mutually RB exclusive JJ circumstances NNS may MD play VV roles NNS to TO various JJ degrees NNS . SENT a DT the DT brains NNS of IN lamnids NNS and CC tunas NNS may MD have VH need NN to TO store VV comparatively RB few JJ experiential JJ memories NNS . SENT b SYM functional JJ DS NP of IN motor NN and CC much JJ other JJ circuitry NN occurs VVZ continuously RB in IN lamnid JJ sharks NNS and CC tunas NNS and CC river NN dolphins NNS , , but CC not RB in IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS . SENT c SYM the DT higher JJR metabolic JJ rates NNS in IN lamnids NNS and CC tunas NNS generally RB represent VVP only RB modest JJ elevations NNS compared VVN to TO those DT in IN endotherms NNS . SENT Circumstance NN c SYM applies VVZ because IN the DT temperature NN elevation NN attained VVN tends VVZ to TO be VB lower JJR the DT warmer JJR the DT water NN . SENT For IN example NN , , the DT highest JJS temperatures NNS in IN lamnoid JJ shark NN muscles NNS were VBD less JJR than IN 29 CD C NP , , and CC that WDT was VBD in IN water NN at IN 22 CD C NP and CC 27 CD C NP . SENT For IN tunas NN , , almost RB without IN exception NN , , muscle NN temperatures NNS were VBD elevated JJ significantly RB only RB at IN water NN temperatures NNS below IN 23 CD C NP and CC only RB exceptionally RB exceeded VVD 32 CD C NP 20 CD and CC 21 CD . SENT Taking VVG these DT considerations NNS into IN account NN , , the DT requirement NN for IN sleep NN in IN genetically RB blind JJ mammals NNS may MD hinge VV importantly RB both CC on IN their PP$ possession NN of IN relatively RB large JJ , , complex JJ brains NNS and CC their PP$ high JJ metabolic JJ rates NNS . SENT It PP is VBZ primarily RB the DT function NN of IN the DT brain NN , , itself PP , , at IN the DT high JJ temperatures NNS of IN endothermy NN that WDT is VBZ being VBG taken VVN into IN account NN in IN the DT above JJ considerations NNS . SENT Factors NNS such JJ as IN energy NN conservation NN and CC rejuvenation NN of IN other JJ organs NNS than IN the DT brain NN would MD appear VV to TO belong VV in IN the DT category NN of IN ancillary JJ benefits NNS . SENT From IN the DT foregoing JJ , , it PP would MD appear VV that IN factors NNS involved VVN in IN the DT need NN for IN sleep NN in IN blind JJ humans NNS beyond IN needs NNS during IN early JJ development NN of IN the DT CNS NP may MD not RB be VB greatly RB different JJ from IN those DT in IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC dolphins NNS , , including VVG , , for IN the DT blind JJ mole NN rat NN , , significant JJ ancillary JJ benefits NNS such JJ as IN rest NN and CC rejuvenation NN , , and CC energy NN conservation NN . SENT In IN this DT connection NN , , the DT cortical JJ visual JJ regions NNS of IN adventitiously RB and CC congenitally RB blind JJ humans NNS remain VVP highly RB active JJ , , metabolically RB and CC electrically RB , , with IN highest JJS activity NN in IN the DT striate JJ and CC prestriate JJ regions NNS . SENT Moreover RB , , in IN monkeys NNS and CC cats NNS visually RB deprived VVN since IN birth NN , , spontaneous JJ electrical JJ activity NN in IN neurons NNS of IN these DT regions NNS is VBZ present JJ and CC resembles VVZ that IN in IN non JJ deprived VVN animals NNS 98 CD and CC 126 CD . SENT Concerning VVG the DT existence NN of IN cross NN modal JJ compensatory JJ plasticity NN of IN human JJ cortical JJ visual JJ regions NNS , , suggestive JJ evidence NN has VHZ been VBN mounting VVG . SENT Thus RB , , the DT level NN of IN activity NN in IN the DT primary JJ and CC secondary JJ visual JJ cortices NNS of IN adventitiously RB and CC congenitally RB blind JJ subjects NNS during IN auditory JJ and CC tactile JJ tasks NNS is VBZ higher JJR than IN in IN sighted JJ and CC blindfolded JJ controls NNS 108 CD , , and CC during IN auditory JJ localization NN tasks NNS , , the DT cortical JJ visual JJ associative JJ areas NNS of IN congenitally RB blind JJ subjects NNS become VVP activated VVN 5 CD . SENT Some DT have VHP suggested VVN that IN , , when WRB the DT level NN of IN activation NN of IN other JJ processing NN specific JJ cortical JJ modules NNS of IN the DT blind JJ is VBZ raised VVN , , heightened JJ activity NN in IN visual JJ regions NNS merely RB reflects VVZ non JJ specific JJ coactivations NNS 98 CD . SENT However RB , , in IN view NN of IN other JJ instances NNS of IN cross NN modal JJ compensatory JJ cortical JJ plasticity NN in IN ferrets NNS , , Syrian JJ hamsters NNS , , cats NNS , , rats NNS 92 CD and CC 99 CD , , and CC blind JJ mole NN rats NNS 31 CD , , the DT known VVN responsiveness NN of IN neurons NNS in IN the DT visual JJ cortices NNS of IN humans NNS and CC cats NNS to TO auditory JJ stimuli NNS 40 CD of IN those DT in IN cats NNS , , and CC improved JJ auditory JJ localization NN by IN visually RB deprived VVN cats NNS 30 CD , , 92 CD and CC 120 CD , , this DT position NN seems VVZ unwarranted JJ . SENT In IN brief JJ synopsis NN , , many JJ sharks NNS and CC teleosts NNS require VVP no RB sleep VV because IN of IN reduced JJ visual JJ input NN and CC needs VVZ to TO process VV visual JJ information NN , , a DT relatively RB small JJ store NN of IN experiential JJ memories NNS , , functional JJ DS NP of IN most JJS inherited VVN memories NNS , , and CC relatively RB low JJ levels NNS of IN brain NN metabolism NN , , compared VVN to TO endotherms NNS . SENT Most JJS reptiles NNS and CC amphibians NNS require VVP sleep NN because IN of IN their PP$ great JJ dependence NN on IN vision NN and CC other JJ senses NNS , , and CC because IN their PP$ correspondingly RB great JJ needs NNS to TO process VV ongoing JJ sensory JJ information NN during IN wakefulness NN interfere VVP with IN simultaneous JJ reinforcement NN of IN memory NN circuits NNS . SENT Blind JJ fishes NNS and CC blind JJ amphibians NNS require VVP no RB sleep VV because IN , , in IN the DT absence NN of IN vision NN , , interference NN of IN sensory JJ input NN with IN reinforcement NN of IN memory NN circuits NNS is VBZ at IN a DT low JJ level NN . SENT Although IN blind JJ mole NN rats NNS and CC blind JJ dolphins NNS dispense VVP with IN almost RB all DT needs NNS for IN storing VVG and CC processing VVG visual JJ information NN , , the DT combination NN of IN comparatively RB large JJ , , complex JJ brains NNS , , high JJ level NN of IN brain NN metabolism NN , , and CC enhanced JJ dependence NN on IN non JJ visual JJ sensory JJ systems NNS , , leads VVZ to TO large JJ requirements NNS for IN memory NN circuit NN reinforcement NN and CC attendant JJ needs NNS for IN sleep NN . SENT The DT only JJ circumstance NN in IN which WDT terrestrial JJ mammals NNS achieve VVP a DT state NN in IN which WDT absence NN of IN sleep NN and CC reinforcement NN of IN memory NN circuits NNS can MD be VB tolerated VVN for IN long JJ periods NNS without IN ill JJ effect NN , , is VBZ deep JJ torpor NN , , with IN greatly RB lowered VVN levels NNS of IN brain NN metabolism NN . SENT For IN birds NNS , , non JJ utilitarian JJ DS NP of IN memories NNS with IN both DT eyes NNS open VVP and CC without IN sleep NN apparently RB can MD occur VV in IN migrating VVG flocks VVZ and CC even RB during IN solitary JJ flight NN . SENT AcknowledgementsI NNS thank VVP two CD anonymous JJ reviewers NNS for IN their PP$ incisive JJ comments NNS and CC suggestions NNS , , and CC Marisa NP G NP . SENT Kavanau NN for IN assistance NN with IN the DT manuscript NN . SENT References NNS 1 CD . SENT C SYM . SENT J NP . SENT Amliner NP , , Jr NP . SENT and CC N NP . SENT J NP . SENT Ball NP , , A DT synthesis NN of IN sleep NN in IN wild JJ birds NNS . SENT Behav NNS 87 CD 1983 CD , , pp NP . SENT 85 CD 119 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT J NP . SENT Antrobus NP , , Dreaming VVG . SENT cognitive JJ processes NNS during IN cortical JJ activation NN and CC high JJ afferent JJ thresholds NNS . SENT Psychol NP Rev NP 98 CD 1991 CD , , pp NP . SENT 96 CD 120 CD . SENT 3 LS . SENT Antrobus NP J NP . SENT Dreaming VVG . SENT Can MD we PP do VVP without IN it PP . SENT In IN . SENT Moffitt NP A NP , , Kramer NP M NP , , Hoffman NP R NP , , editors NNS . SENT The DT functions NNS of IN dreaming VVG , , Albany NP . SENT State NP University NP of IN New NP York NP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 548 CD 558 CD . SENT . SENT 4 LS . SENT Aronson NP LR NP . SENT The DT central JJ nervous JJ system NN of IN sharks NNS and CC bony JJ fishes NNS with IN special JJ reference NN to TO sensory JJ and CC integrative JJ mechanisms NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Gilbert NP PW NP , , Heath NP DC NP , , editors NNS . SENT Sharks NNS and CC Survival NN , , Boston NP , , 1963 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 115 CD 149 CD . SENT . SENT 5 LS . SENT A DT . SENT Aziz NP Sultan NP , , R NP . SENT A DT . SENT Weeks NNS , , B NP . SENT Tian NP , , I NP . SENT G NP . SENT Cohen NP , , J NP . SENT P NN . SENT Rauschecker NP and CC M NP . SENT Hallett NP , , Auditory JJ localisation NN demonstrates VVZ cross VV modal JJ plasticity NN in IN congenitally RB blind JJ subjects NNS . SENT Neurol NP 84 NP Suppl NP . SENT 2 CD 1997 CD , , p NN . SENT 219 CD . SENT 6 CD . SENT Ball NP NJ NP , , Amlaner NP CJ NP , , Shaffrey NP JP NP , , Opp NP MR NP . SENT Asynchronous JJ eye NN closure NN and CC unihemispheric JJ quiet JJ sleep NN of IN birds NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Koella NP WP NP , , Ob NP l NN F NN , , Schulz NP H NP , , Visser NP P NN , , editors NNS . SENT Stuttgart NP . SENT Fischer NP , , 1988 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 151 CD 153 CD . SENT . SENT 7 CD . SENT Barnes NP BM NP , , Omtzigt NP C NP , , Daan NP S NP . SENT Hibernators NNS periodically RB arouse VV in IN order NN to TO sleep VV . SENT In IN . SENT Carey NP C NP , , Florant NP GL NP , , Wunder NP BL NP , , Horwitz NP B NP , , editors NNS . SENT Life NN in IN the DT Cold NP . SENT Ecological JJ , , Physiological JJ and CC Molecular JJ Mechanisms NNS , , Boulder NP , , CO NP . SENT Westview NP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 555 CD 558 CD . SENT . SENT 8 CD . SENT G NP . SENT J NP . SENT Bean NP , , V NN . SENT Marchese NP and CC B NP . SENT A DT . SENT Martin NP , , Electric NP stimulus NN energy NN and CC the DT clinical JJ response NN to TO electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN . SENT Canadian NP J NP Psychiatry NP 36 CD 1991 CD , , pp NP . SENT 637 CD 644 CD . SENT 9 CD . SENT Benca NP RM NP . SENT The DT affective JJ disorders NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Cooper NP R NP , , editor NN . SENT Sleep NP , , London NP . SENT Chapman NP and CC Hall NP Medical NP , , 1994 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 525 CD 556 CD . SENT . SENT 10 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT J NP . SENT Berger NP and CC N NP . SENT H NP . SENT Phillips NP , , Energy NP conservation NN and CC sleep NN . SENT Behav NP Brain NP Res NNS 69 CD 1995 CD , , pp NP . SENT 65 CD 73 CD . SENT 11 CD . SENT Bleuler NP E NP . SENT Dementia NN Praecox NP or CC the DT Group NP of IN Schizophrenias NNS trans NP . SENT J NP . SENT Zinkin NP , , New NP York NP . SENT International NP Universities NNS Press NP , , 1950 CD . SENT . SENT 12 CD . SENT Block NP BA NP . SENT Endothermy NN in IN fish NN . SENT Thermogenesis NN , , ecology NN and CC evolution NN . SENT In IN . SENT Hocha NP chka NP Pw NP , , Mommsen NP , , TP NP , , editors NNS . SENT Biochemistry NN and CC Molecular JJ Biology NN of IN Fishes NNS , , Vol NP . SENT 1 LS , , Oxford NP . SENT Elsevier NP , , 1991 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 269 CD 311 CD . SENT . SENT 13 CD . SENT S NP . SENT B SYM . SENT Blunt NP , , R NP . SENT J NP . SENT Lane NP , , N NP . SENT Turjanski NP and CC G NP . SENT D SYM . SENT Perkin NP , , Clinical JJ features NNS and CC management NN of IN two CD cases NNS of IN encephalitis NN lethargica NN . SENT Movement NN Disorders NNS 12 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 354 CD 359 CD . SENT 14 CD . SENT A DT . SENT R SYM . SENT Braun NP , , T NN . SENT J NP . SENT Balkin NP , , N NP . SENT J NP . SENT Wesensten NP , , F NP . SENT Gwadry NP , , R NP . SENT E SYM . SENT Carson NP , , M NP . SENT Varga NP , , P NN . SENT Baldwin NP , , G NP . SENT Belenky NP and CC P NN . SENT Herscovitch NP , , Dissociated VVD pattern NN of IN activity NN in IN visual JJ cortices NNS and CC their PP$ projections NNS during IN human JJ rapid JJ eye NN movement NN sleep NN . SENT Science NN 279 CD 1998 CD , , pp NP . SENT 91 CD 95 CD . SENT 15 CD . SENT C SYM . SENT M NP . SENT Breder NP , , Jr NP . SENT , , Problems NP in IN the DT behavior NN and CC evolution NN of IN a DT species NN of IN blind JJ cave NN fish NN . SENT Trans NP NY NP Acad NP Sci NP 5 CD 1943 CD , , pp NP . SENT 168 CD 176 CD . SENT 16 CD . SENT A DT . SENT Breusch NP and CC J NP . SENT Arey NP , , The DT number NN of IN myelinated JJ and CC unmyelinated JJ fibres NNS in IN the DT optic JJ nerve NN of IN vertebrates NNS . SENT J NP Comp NP Neurol NP 77 CD 1942 CD , , pp NP . SENT 631 CD 665 CD . SENT 17 CD . SENT P NN . SENT Brown NP and CC D NP . SENT C SYM . SENT Gajdusek NP , , The DT human JJ spongiform JJ encephalopathies NNS . SENT kuru NN , , Creutzfeldt NP Jakob NP Disease NP , , and CC the DT Gerstmann NP Str NP ussler NP Scheinker NP Syndrome NN . SENT Current JJ Topics NNS Microbiol NP Immunol NP 72 CD 1991 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1 CD 20 CD . SENT 18 CD . SENT M NP . SENT D SYM . SENT Brown NP and CC J NP . SENT W NP . SENT Potter NP , , Floppy JJ eyelid NN syndrome NN . SENT A DT case NN report NN and CC clinical JJ review NN . SENT J NP Am NP Optomet NP Assoc NP 63 CD 1992 CD , , pp NP . SENT 309 CD 314 CD . SENT 19 CD . SENT S NP . SENT S NP . SENT Campbell NP and CC I NP . SENT Tobler NP , , Animal NN sleep NN . SENT A DT review NN of IN sleep NN duration NN across IN phylogeny NN . SENT Neurosci NP Biobehav NP Rev NP 8 CD 1984 CD , , pp NP . SENT 269 CD 300 CD . SENT 20 CD . SENT F SYM . SENT G NP . SENT Carey NP , , J NP . SENT G NP . SENT Casey NP , , H NP . SENT L NP . SENT Prat NP , , D NP . SENT Urquhart NP and CC J NP . SENT E SYM . SENT McCosker NP , , Temperature NN heat NN production NN heat NN exchange NN in IN lamnid JJ sharks NNS . SENT South NP Calif NP Acad NP Sci NP Mem NN 9 CD 1985 CD , , pp NP . SENT 92 CD 108 CD . SENT 21 CD . SENT F SYM . SENT G NP . SENT Carey NP , , J NP . SENT M NP . SENT Teal NP , , J NP . SENT W NP . SENT Kanwisher NP and CC K NP . SENT D SYM . SENT Lawson NP , , Warm NP bodied VVD fish NN . SENT Amer NP Zool NP 11 CD 1971 CD , , pp NP . SENT 135 CD 143 CD . SENT 22 CD . SENT Cousteau NP J NP V NN , , Diole NP P NN . SENT Octopus NN and CC Squid NN . SENT The DT Soft JJ Intelligence NP J NP . SENT F SYM . SENT Bernard NP , , trans NP . SENT , , Cassell NP , , London NP , , 1973 CD . SENT . SENT 23 CD . SENT Cullen NP W NP . SENT First NP Lines NPS of IN the DT Practice NN of IN Physic NN , , Vol NP . SENT 4 LS , , part NN 2 CD , , book NN 3 CD . SENT C SYM . SENT Elliott NP , , Edinburgh NP , , 1788 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 130 CD 132 CD . SENT . SENT 24 CD . SENT S NP . SENT Daan NP , , B NP . SENT M NP . SENT Barnes NP and CC A NP . SENT M NP . SENT Strijkstra NP , , Warming VVG up RP for IN sleep NN . SENT Ground NN squirrels NNS sleep VVP during IN arousals NNS from IN hibernation NN . SENT Neurosci NP Lett NP 128 CD 1991 CD , , pp NP . SENT 265 CD 268 CD . SENT 25 CD . SENT Darwin NP E NP . SENT Zoonomia NP , , or CC the DT Laws NP of IN Organic NP Life NP , , Vol NP . SENT 1 LS . SENT J NP . SENT Johnson NP , , London NP , , 1794 CD 1796 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 156 CD , , 157 CD . SENT . SENT 26 CD . SENT S NP . SENT Dawson NP and CC J NP . SENT C SYM . SENT M NP . SENT Conn NP , , Effect NN of IN encephalitis NN lethargica NN on IN the DT intelligence NN of IN children NNS . SENT Arch NP Disease NP Childhood NN 1 CD 1926 CD , , pp NP . SENT 357 CD 368 CD . SENT 27 CD . SENT Declerck NP AC NP . SENT Interaction NP Epilepsy NP , , Sleep NP Antiepileptics NP . SENT A DT Clinical JJ , , Neurophysiological JJ Study NN . SENT Swets NP and CC Zeitlinger NP , , Lisse NP , , 1983 CD . SENT . SENT 28 CD . SENT d'Elia NP G NP . SENT Unilateral JJ electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN . SENT In IN . SENT Fink NP M NP , , Kety NP S NP , , McGaugh NP J NP , , Williams NP TA NP , , editors NNS . SENT Psychobiology NN of IN Convulsive JJ Therapy NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Wiley NP , , 1974 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 21 CD 34 CD . SENT . SENT 29 CD . SENT De NP Manac NP ne RB M NP . SENT Sleep NN . SENT Its PP$ Physiology NN , , Pathology NN , , Hygiene NN and CC Psychology NP trans NP . SENT E SYM . SENT Jaubert NP . SENT W NP . SENT Scott NP , , Ltd NP . SENT , , London NP , , 1897 CD . SENT . SENT 30 CD . SENT Diamond NP IT PP . SENT Changing VVG views NNS of IN the DT organization NN and CC evolution NN of IN the DT visual JJ pathways NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Morrison NP AR NP , , Strick NP PL NP , , editors NNS . SENT Changing VVG Concepts NNS of IN the DT Nervous JJ System NP . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Academic NP Press NP , , 1982 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 201 CD 233 CD . SENT . SENT 31 CD . SENT N NP . SENT Doron NP and CC Z NP . SENT Wollberg NP , , Cross NP modal JJ neuroplasticity NN in IN the DT blind JJ mole NN rat NN Spalax NP ehrenbergi NP . SENT A DT WGA NP HRP NP tracing VVG study NN . SENT NeuroReport NP 5 CD 1994 CD , , pp NP . SENT 2697 CD 2701 CD . SENT 32 CD . SENT C SYM . SENT A DT . SENT Everson NP , , Functional JJ consequences NNS of IN sustained JJ sleep NN deprivation NN in IN the DT rat NN . SENT Behav NP Brain NP Res NNS 69 CD 1995 CD , , pp NP . SENT 43 CD 54 CD . SENT 33 CD . SENT Fink NP M NP . SENT Induced VVN seizures NNS and CC human JJ behavior NN . SENT In IN . SENT Fink NP M NP , , Kety NP S NP , , McGaugh NP J NP , , Williams NP TA NP , , editors NNS . SENT Psychobiology NN of IN Convulsive JJ Therapy NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Wiley NP , , 1974 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 1 CD 17 CD . SENT . SENT 34 CD . SENT M NP . SENT Fink NP , , How WRB does VVZ convulsive JJ therapy NN work NN . SENT . SENT Neuropsychopharmacol NP 3 CD 1990 CD , , pp NP . SENT 73 CD 82 CD . SENT 35 CD . SENT H NP . SENT Folkerts NP , , The DT ictal JJ electroencephalogram NN as IN a DT marker NN for IN the DT efficacy NN of IN electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN . SENT Eur NP Arch NP Psychiatry NP Clin NP Neurosci NP 246 CD 1996 CD , , pp NP . SENT 155 CD 164 CD . SENT 36 CD . SENT Foulkes NP D NP . SENT Dreaming VVG . SENT A DT Cognitive JJ Psychological JJ Analysis NN . SENT Hillsdale NP , , NJ NP . SENT Erlbaum NP Associates NPS , , 1985 CD . SENT . SENT 37 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT Foulkes NP and CC H NP . SENT Fleisher NP , , Mental JJ activity NN in IN relaxed VVN wakefulness NN . SENT J NP Abnormal JJ Psychol NP 84 CD 1975 CD , , pp NP . SENT 66 CD 75 CD . SENT 38 CD . SENT P NN . SENT Gambetti NP , , R NP . SENT Petersen NP , , L NP . SENT Monari NP , , M NP . SENT Tabaton NP , , L NP . SENT Autilio NP Gambetti NP , , P NN . SENT Cortelli NP , , P NN . SENT Montagna NP and CC E NP . SENT Lugaresi NP , , Fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN and CC the DT widening VVG spectrum NN of IN prion NN diseases NNS . SENT Br NP Med NP Bull NP 49 CD 1993 CD , , pp NP . SENT 980 CD 994 CD . SENT 39 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT H NP . SENT Gerner NP , , R NP . SENT M NP . SENT Post NP , , J NP . SENT C SYM . SENT Gillin NP and CC W NP . SENT E SYM . SENT Bunney NP , , Biological JJ and CC behavioral JJ effects NNS of IN one CD night's NNS sleep VVP deprivation NN in IN depressed JJ patients NNS and CC normals NNS . SENT J NP Affect VVP Disord NP 6 CD 1984 CD , , pp NP . SENT 283 CD 286 CD . SENT 40 CD . SENT H NP . SENT Gloor NP , , Experiential JJ phenomena NNS of IN temporal JJ lobe NN epilepsy NN . SENT Brain NN 113 CD 1990 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1673 CD 1694 CD . SENT 41 CD . SENT Graeber NP RC NP . SENT Behavior NN studies NNS correlated VVN with IN central JJ nervous JJ system NN integration NN of IN vision NN in IN sharks NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Hodgson NP ES NP , , Mathewson NP RF NP , , editors NNS . SENT Sensory JJ Biology NN of IN Sharks NNS , , Skates NP and CC Rays NPS , , Office NP of IN Naval NP Research NP , , Department NP of IN the DT Navy NP , , Arlington NP , , VA NP , , 1978 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 195 CD 225 CD . SENT . SENT 42 CD . SENT Greenberg NP R NP . SENT Dreams NNS and CC REM NP sleep VVP An DT integrative JJ approach NN . SENT In IN . SENT Fishbein NP W NP , , editor NN . SENT Sleep NN , , Dreams NNS and CC Memory NP , , New NP York NP . SENT SP NP Medical NP and CC Scientific NP Books NPS , , 1981 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 125 CD 133 CD . SENT . SENT 43 CD . SENT Grunbaum NP , , D NP . SENT , , Schooling NP as IN a DT strategy NN for IN taxis NNS in IN a DT noisy JJ environment NN . SENT In IN Parrish NP JK NP , , Hammer NP WM NP , , editors NNS . SENT Animal JJ Groups NNS in IN Three CD Dimensions NNS , , Cambridge NP . SENT Cambridge NP University NP Press NP , , 1997 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 257 CD 281 CD . SENT . SENT 44 CD . SENT Hamner NP WM NP , , Parrish NP JK NP . SENT Is VBZ the DT sum NN of IN the DT parts NNS equal JJ to TO the DT whole NN . SENT The DT conflict NN between IN individuality NN and CC group NN membership NN . SENT In IN . SENT Parrish NP JK NP , , Hammer NP WM NP , , editors NNS . SENT Animal JJ Groups NNS in IN Three CD Dimensions NNS . SENT Cambridge NP . SENT Cambridge NP University NP Press NP , , 1997 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 165 CD 173 CD . SENT . SENT 45 CD . SENT Hanley NP J NP . SENT Electroencephalography NN in IN psychiatric JJ disorders NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Flach NP F NP , , editor NN . SENT Psychobiology NN and CC Psychopharmacology NN , , New NP York NP . SENT W NP . SENT W NP . SENT Norton NP and CC Company NP , , 1988 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 190 CD 212 CD . SENT . SENT 46 CD . SENT J NP . SENT Harlow NP and CC S NP . SENT Roll NP , , Frequency NN of IN day NN residue NN in IN dreams NNS of IN young JJ adults NNS . SENT Perceptual JJ Motor NP Skills NNS 74 CD 1992 CD , , pp NP . SENT 832 CD 834 CD . SENT 47 CD . SENT Harris NP Warrick NP RM NP , , Nagy NP F NP , , Nusbaum NP NP NP . SENT Neuromodulation NN of IN stomatogastric JJ networks NNS by IN identified VVN neurons NNS and CC transmitters NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Harris NP Warrick NP RM NP , , Marder NP E NP , , Selverston NP AI VVZ , , Moulins NNS M NP , , editors NNS . SENT Dynamic JJ Biological NP Networks NPS , , London NP . SENT MIT NP Press NP , , 1992 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 87 CD 137 CD . SENT . SENT 48 CD . SENT Hazel NP JR NP . SENT Thermal JJ biology NN . SENT In IN . SENT Evans NP DH NP , , editor NN . SENT The DT Physiology NN of IN Fishes NNS , , London NP . SENT CRC NP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 427 CD 467 CD . SENT . SENT 49 CD . SENT Heller NP HC NP , , Grahn NP DA NP , , Trachsel NP L NP , , Larkin NP JE NP . SENT What WP is VBZ a DT bout NN of IN hibernation NN . SENT In IN . SENT Carey NP C NP . SENT Florant NP GL NP , , Wunder NP BL NP , , Horwitz NP B NP , , editors NNS . SENT Life NN in IN the DT Cold NP . SENT Ecological JJ , , Physiological JJ and CC Molecular JJ Mechanisms NNS , , Boulder NP , , CO NP . SENT Westview NP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 253 CD 264 CD . SENT . SENT 50 CD . SENT Hobson NP JA NP . SENT Sleep NN . SENT Scientific JJ American JJ Library NN , , New NP York NP , , 1995 CD . SENT . SENT 51 CD . SENT J NP . SENT A DT . SENT Hobson NP , , Dreaming VVG as IN delirium NN . SENT A DT mental JJ status NN analysis NN of IN our PP$ nightly JJ madness NN . SENT Seminars NNS Neurol NP 71 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 121 CD 128 CD . SENT 52 CD . SENT J NP . SENT A DT . SENT Hobson NP and CC R NP . SENT W NP . SENT McCarley NP , , The DT brain NN as IN a DT dream NN state NN generator NN . SENT An DT activation NN synthesis NN hypothesis NN of IN the DT dream NN process NN . SENT Am NP J NP Psychiatry NP 134 CD 1977 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1335 CD 1348 CD . SENT 53 CD . SENT Hobson NP JA NP , , Stickgold NP R NP . SENT The DT conscious JJ state NN paradigm NN . SENT A DT neurocognitive JJ approach NN to TO waking VVG , , sleeping VVG and CC dreaming VVG . SENT In IN . SENT Gazzaniga NP MS NN , , editor NN . SENT The DT cognitive JJ neurosciences NP , , Cambridge NP , , MA NN . SENT MIT NP Press NP , , 1995 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 1373 CD 1389 CD . SENT . SENT 54 CD . SENT Hunt NP HT NP . SENT The DT Multiplicity NN of IN Dreams NNS , , London NP . SENT Yale NP University NP Press NP , , 1989 CD . SENT . SENT 55 CD . SENT Jaeckel NP SGA NP . SENT Cephalopoden NP . SENT In IN . SENT Remane NP A NP , , editor NN , , Die VVP Tierwelt NP der NP Nord NP und NN Ostsee NP IXb NP 3 CD , , Geest NN and CC Portig NP , , Leipzig NP , , 1958 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 479 CD 723 CD . SENT . SENT 56 CD . SENT J NP . SENT Johnson NP and CC P NN . SENT A DT . SENT Lucey NP , , A DT contemporary JJ cause NN of IN catatonic JJ stupor NN . SENT A DT report NN of IN two CD cases NNS . SENT British NP J NP Psychiatry NP 151 CD 1987 CD , , pp NP . SENT 550 CD 552 CD . SENT 57 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT Kahn NP , , E NP . SENT F SYM . SENT Pace NP Schott NP and CC J NP . SENT A DT . SENT Hobson NP , , Consciousness NN in IN waking VVG and CC dreaming VVG . SENT The DT roles NNS of IN neuronal JJ oscillation NN and CC neuromodulation NN in IN determining VVG similarities NNS and CC differences NNS . SENT Neurosci NNS 78 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 13 CD 38 CD . SENT 58 CD . SENT W NP . SENT Kaiser NP , , Rest NN at IN night NN in IN some DT solitary JJ bees NNS A DT comparison NN with IN the DT sleep NN like IN state NN of IN honey NN bees NNS . SENT Apidologie NP 26 CD 1995 CD , , pp NP . SENT 213 CD 230 CD . SENT 59 CD . SENT Kaiser NP W NP , , Jander NP JP NP . SENT Electromyographic JJ indicators NNS of IN sleep NN and CC wakefulness NN in IN honey NN bees NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Koella NP WP NP , , Ob NP l NN F NN , , Schilz NP H NP , , Visser NP P NN , , editors NNS . SENT Sleep NP 86 CD , , Stuttgart NP . SENT Fischer NP , , 1988 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 249 CD 251 CD . SENT . SENT 60 CD . SENT Kare NP MR NP , , Rogers NP JG NP , , Jr NP . SENT , , In NP . SENT Sturkie NP PD NP , , editor NN , , Sense NN organs NNS . SENT Avian JJ Physiology NN , , 3 CD rd NNS ed NP . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Springer NP , , 1976 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 29 CD 52 CD . SENT . SENT 61 CD . SENT J NP . SENT L NP . SENT Kavanau NP , , Conservative JJ behavioural JJ evolution NN , , the DT neural JJ substrate NN . SENT Anim NP Behav NP 39 CD 1990 CD , , pp NP . SENT 758 CD 767 CD . SENT 62 CD . SENT J NP . SENT L NP . SENT Kavanau NP , , Sleep NP and CC dynamic JJ stabilization NN of IN neural JJ circuitry NN . SENT A DT review NN and CC synthesis NN . SENT Behav NP Brain NP Res NNS 63 CD 1994 CD , , pp NP . SENT 111 CD 126 CD . SENT 63 CD . SENT J NP . SENT L NP . SENT Kavanau NP , , Memory NP , , sleep NN and CC dynamic JJ stabilization NN of IN neural JJ circuitry NN . SENT Evolutionary JJ perspectives NNS . SENT Neurosci NP Biobehav NP Rev NP 20 CD 1996 CD , , pp NP . SENT 289 CD 311 CD . SENT 64 CD . SENT J NP . SENT L NP . SENT Kavanau NP , , Memory NP , , sleep NN and CC the DT evolution NN of IN mechanisms NNS of IN synaptic JJ efficacy NN maintenance NN . SENT Neurosci NNS 79 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 7 CD 44 CD . SENT 65 CD . SENT J NP . SENT L NP . SENT Kavanau NP , , Vertebrates NNS that WDT never RB sleep VVP . SENT Implications NNS for IN sleep VVP s PP basic JJ function NN . SENT Brain NN Res NN Bull NP 46 CD 1998 CD , , pp NP . SENT 269 CD 279 CD . SENT 66 CD . SENT P NN . SENT H NP . SENT Kelly NP , , Defective JJ inhibition NN of IN dream NN event NN memory NN formation NN . SENT A DT hypothesized VVN mechanism NN in IN the DT onset NN progression NN of IN symptoms NNS of IN schizophrenia NN . SENT Brain NN Res NN Bull NP 46 CD 1998 CD , , pp NP . SENT 189 CD 197 CD . SENT 67 CD . SENT Kiloh NP LG NP , , McComas NP AJ NP , , Osselton NP JW NP , , Upton NP ARM NN . SENT Clinical JJ Encephalography NN , , Butterworths NP . SENT London NP , , 1981 CD . SENT . SENT 68 CD . SENT Kupfer NP DJ NP . SENT Advances NNS in IN sleep NN and CC EEG NN research NN . SENT In IN . SENT Flach NP M NP , , editor NN . SENT Psychobiology NN and CC Psychopharmacology NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Norton NP and CC Company NP , , 1988 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 213 CD 232 CD . SENT . SENT 69 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT R SYM . SENT Llin NP s PP and CC D NP . SENT Par NN , , Of IN dreaming VVG and CC wakefulness NN . SENT Neurosci NNS 44 CD 1991 CD , , pp NP . SENT 521 CD 535 CD . SENT 70 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT R SYM . SENT Llin NP s PP and CC U NP . SENT Ribary NP , , Coherent JJ 40 CD Hz NP oscillation NN characterizes VVZ dream NN state NN in IN humans NNS . SENT Proc NP Natl NP Acad NP Sci NP USA NP 90 CD 1993 CD , , pp NP . SENT 2078 CD 2081 CD . SENT 71 CD . SENT B SYM . SENT L NP deritz NP , , D NP . SENT Pfeiffer NP , , J NP . SENT Tebbenjohanns NP and CC J NP . SENT Werner NP , , Nonpharmacologic JJ strategies NNS for IN treating VVG atrial JJ fibrillation NN . SENT Am NP J NP Cardiology NN 77 CD 1996 CD , , pp NP . SENT 45 CD A NP 52 CD A NP . SENT 72 CD . SENT M NP . SENT W NP . SENT Mahowald NP , , S NP . SENT R SYM . SENT Woods NP and CC C NP . SENT H NP . SENT Schenck NP , , Sleeping NN dreams NNS , , waking VVG hallucinations NNS , , and CC the DT central JJ nervous JJ system NN . SENT Dreaming VVG 8 CD 1998 CD , , pp NP . SENT 89 CD . SENT 102 CD . SENT 73 CD . SENT Martin NP J NP J NP . SENT The DT thalamus NN . SENT Anatomoclinical JJ correlations NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Guilleminault NP C NP , , Lugaresi NP E NP , , Montagna NP P NN , , Gambetti NP P NN , , editors NNS . SENT Fatal JJ Familial JJ Insomnia NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Raven NP Press NP , , 1994 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 45 CD 55 CD . SENT . SENT 74 CD . SENT J NP . SENT A DT . SENT Mather NP and CC D NP . SENT L NP . SENT Mather NP , , Skin NN colors NNS and CC patterns NNS of IN juvenile JJ Octopus NN vulgaris NP Mollusca NP , , Cephalopoda NP in IN Bermuda NP . SENT Vie VV Milieu NN 44 CD 1994 CD , , pp NP . SENT 267 CD 272 CD . SENT 75 CD . SENT Moruzzi NP G NP . SENT The DT functional JJ significance NN of IN sleep NN with IN particular JJ regard NN to TO the DT brain NN mechanisms NNS underlying VVG consciousness NN , , In NP . SENT Eccles NP Jc NP , , editor NN . SENT Brain NN and CC Conscious JJ Experience NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Springer NP , , 1966 CD , , pp NP . SENT 345 CD 388 CD . SENT . SENT 76 CD . SENT L NP . SENT M NP . SENT Mukhametov NP , , Sleep VVP in IN marine JJ mammals NNS . SENT Exp NP Brain NP Res NN Suppl NP . SENT 8 CD 1984 CD , , pp NP . SENT 227 CD 236 CD . SENT 77 CD . SENT Niedermeyer NP E NP , , Lopes NP da NP Silva NP F NP . SENT Electroencephalography NN . SENT Basic JJ Principles NNS , , Clinical JJ Applications NP and CC Related NP Fields NP , , 3 CD rd NNS Ed NP . SENT Baltimore NP . SENT Williams NP Wilkins NP , , 1993 CD . SENT . SENT 78 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT G NP . SENT Northcutt NP , , Brain NP variation NN and CC phylogenetic JJ trends NNS in IN elasmobranch JJ fishes NNS . SENT J NP Exp NP Zool NP Suppl NP . SENT 2 CD 1989 CD , , pp NP . SENT 83 CD 100 CD . SENT 79 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT M NP . SENT O'Leary NP , , C NP . SENT R SYM . SENT Gerfen NP and CC M NP . SENT W NP . SENT Cowan NP , , The DT development NN and CC restriction NN of IN the DT ipsilateral JJ retinofugal JJ projection NN in IN the DT chick NN . SENT Dev NP Brain NP Res NNS 10 CD 1983 CD , , pp NP . SENT 93 CD 109 CD . SENT 80 CD . SENT A DT . SENT I PP . SENT Oleksenko NP , , I NP . SENT S NP . SENT Chetyrbok NP , , I NP . SENT G NP . SENT Polyakova NP and CC L NP . SENT M NP . SENT Mukhametov NP , , Rest NN active JJ states NNS in IN Amazonian JJ dolphins NNS Inia NP goeffrensis NN . SENT J NP Sleep NP Res NNS 3 CD Suppl NN . SENT 1 CD 1994 CD , , p NN . SENT 185 CD . SENT 81 CD . SENT T NN . SENT Ookawa NP and CC J NP . SENT Gotoh NP , , Electroencephalogram NN of IN the DT chicken NN recorded VVN from IN the DT skull NN under IN various JJ conditions NNS . SENT J NP Comp NP Neurol NP 124 CD 1965 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1 CD 14 CD . SENT 82 CD . SENT T NN . SENT Ookawa NP and CC K NP . SENT Takagi NP , , Electroencephalograms NNS of IN free JJ behavioral JJ chicks NNS at IN various JJ developmental JJ ages NNS . SENT Jap NP J NP Physiol NP 18 CD 1968 CD , , pp NP . SENT 87 CD 99 CD . SENT 83 CD . SENT Packard NP A NP . SENT Organization NN of IN cephalopod JJ chromatophore NN systems NNS . SENT A DT neuromuscular JJ imagegenerator NN . SENT In IN . SENT Abbott NP NJ NP , , Williamson NP R NP , , Maddoc NP L NP , , editors NNS . SENT Cephalopod JJ Neurobiology NN , , Oxford NP . SENT Oxford NP University NP Press NP , , 1995 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 331 CD 367 CD . SENT . SENT 84 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT Par NP and CC R NP . SENT R SYM . SENT Llin NP s PP , , Conscious JJ and CC pre NP conscious JJ processes NNS as IN seen VVN from IN the DT standpoint NN of IN sleep NN waking VVG cycle NN neurophysiology NN . SENT Neuropsychologia NNS 33 CD 1995 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1155 CD 1168 CD . SENT 85 CD . SENT Parzefall NP J NP . SENT Behavioural JJ ecology NN of IN cave NN dwelling NN fishes NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Pitcher NP TJ NP , , editor NN . SENT The DT Behavior NN of IN Teleost JJ Fishes NNS , , London NP . SENT Chapman NP and CC Hall NP , , 1993 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 573 CD 606 CD . SENT . SENT 86 CD . SENT Pilleri NP , , G NP . SENT The DT Secrets NNS of IN the DT Blind JJ Dolphins NNS , , Karachi NP . SENT Elite NP Publishers NPS Ltd NP . SENT , , 1980 CD . SENT . SENT 87 CD . SENT Pivik NP RT NP . SENT The DT psychophysiology NN of IN dreams NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Kryger NP MH NP , , Roth NP T NN , , Dement NP WC NN , , Saunders NP WB NP , , editors NNS . SENT Principles NNS and CC Practice NN of IN Sleep NP Medicine NP , , Philadelphia NP , , 1994 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 384 CD 393 CD . SENT . SENT 88 CD . SENT Plum NP F NP . SENT Fatal JJ familial JJ insomnia NN . SENT Puzzling JJ neurological JJ features NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Guilleminault NP C NP , , Lugaresi NP E NP , , Montagna NP P NN , , Gambetti NP P NN , , editors NNS . SENT Fatal JJ Familial JJ Insomnia NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Raven NP Press NP 1994 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 221 CD 224 CD . SENT . SENT 89 CD . SENT S NP . SENT B SYM . SENT Prusiner NP , , Genetic NP and CC infectious JJ prion NN diseases NNS . SENT Arch NP Neurol NP 50 CD 1993 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1129 CD 1153 CD . SENT 90 CD . SENT S NP . SENT B SYM . SENT Prusiner NP , , Molecular JJ biology NN and CC genetics NN of IN prion NN diseases NNS . SENT Cold NP Stream NP Harbor NP Symp NP Quant NP Biol NP 61 CD 1996 CD , , pp NP . SENT 473 CD 493 CD . SENT 91 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT Quiring NP , , U NP . SENT Walldorf NP , , U NP . SENT Kloter NP and CC W NP . SENT J NP . SENT Gehring NP , , Homology NN of IN the DT eyeless JJ gene NN of IN Drosophila NN to TO the DT small JJ eye NN gene NN in IN mice NNS and CC Anaridia NN in IN humans NNS . SENT Science NN 265 CD 1994 CD , , pp NP . SENT 785 CD 789 CD . SENT 92 CD . SENT J NP . SENT P NN . SENT Rauschecker NP , , Mechanisms NNS of IN visual JJ plasticity NN . SENT Hebb NP synapses NNS NMDA NP receptors NNS and CC beyond IN . SENT Physiol NP Rev NP 71 CD 1991 CD , , pp NP . SENT 587 CD 615 CD . SENT 93 CD . SENT J NP . SENT P NN . SENT Rauschecker NP , , Developmental JJ plasticity NN and CC memory NN . SENT Behav NP Brain NP Res NNS 66 CD 1995 CD , , pp NP . SENT 7 CD 12 CD . SENT 94 CD . SENT A DT . SENT Rechtschaffen NP , , Current JJ perspectives NNS on IN the DT funtion NN of IN sleep NN . SENT Perspectives NNS Biol NP Med NP 41 CD 1998 CD , , pp NP . SENT 359 CD 390 CD . SENT 95 CD . SENT A DT . SENT Rechtschaffen NP , , B NP . SENT M NP . SENT Bergmann NP , , C NP . SENT A DT . SENT Everson NP , , C NP . SENT A DT . SENT Kushida NP and CC M NP . SENT A DT . SENT Gilliland NP , , Sleep VVP deprivation NN in IN the DT rat NN . SENT X SYM . SENT Integration NN and CC discussion NN of IN the DT findings NNS . SENT Sleep VV 12 CD 1989 CD , , pp NP . SENT 68 CD 87 CD . SENT 96 CD . SENT Ridgeway NP SH NP . SENT Physiological JJ observations NNS on IN dolphin NN brains NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Shusterman NP RJ NP , , Thomas NP A NP , , Wood NP FG NP , , editors NNS . SENT Dolphin NP Cognition NN and CC Behavior NN . SENT A DT Comparative JJ Approach NN , , Hilladale NP , , NJ NP . SENT Lawrence NP Erlbaum NP Associates NPS , , 1986 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 31 CD 59 CD . SENT . SENT 97 CD . SENT A DT . SENT Riehle NP , , S NP . SENT Grun NP , , M NP . SENT Diesmann NP and CC A NP . SENT Aertsen NP , , Spike NP synchronization NN and CC rate NN modulation NN differentially RB involved VVN in IN motor NN cortical JJ function NN . SENT Science NN 278 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1950 CD 1953 CD . SENT 98 CD . SENT B SYM . SENT Roder NP , , F NP . SENT Rosler NP and CC E NP . SENT Hennighausen NP , , Different JJ cortical JJ activation NN patterns NNS in IN blind JJ and CC sighted JJ humans NNS during IN encoding VVG and CC transformation NN of IN haptic JJ images NNS . SENT Psychophysiol NN 34 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 292 CD 307 CD . SENT 99 CD . SENT A DT . SENT W NP . SENT Roe NP , , S NP . SENT L NP . SENT Pallas NP , , Y NP . SENT H NP . SENT Kwon NP and CC M NP . SENT Sur NP , , Visual NP projections NNS routed VVN to TO the DT auditory JJ pathway NN in IN ferrets NNS . SENT Receptive JJ fields NNS of IN visual JJ neurons NNS in IN primary JJ auditory JJ cortex NN . SENT J NP Neurosci NP 12 CD 1992 CD , , pp NP . SENT 3651 CD 3664 CD . SENT 100 CD . SENT H NP . SENT P NN . SENT Roffwarg NP , , J NP . SENT N NP . SENT Muzio NP and CC W NP . SENT C SYM . SENT Dement NP , , Ontogenetic JJ development NN of IN the DT human JJ sleep NN dream NN cycle NN . SENT Science NN 152 CD 1966 CD , , pp NP . SENT 604 CD 619 CD . SENT 101 CD . SENT L NP . SENT Rogers NP , , Behavioral JJ , , structural JJ and CC neurochemical JJ asymmetries NNS in IN the DT avian JJ brain NN . SENT A DT model NN system NN for IN studying VVG visual JJ development NN and CC processing NN . SENT Neurosci NP Biobehav NP Rev NP 20 CD 1996 CD , , pp NP . SENT 487 CD 503 CD . SENT 102 CD . SENT Rolls NP ET NP . SENT Information NN processing NN in IN the DT temporal JJ lobe NN visual JJ cortical JJ areas NNS of IN macaques NNS . SENT In IN . SENT ArbibMA NP , , Ewert NP J NP P NN , , editors NNS , , Visual NP Structures NNS and CC Integrated NP Functions NNS , , Berlin NP . SENT Springer NP , , 1991 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 339 CD 352 CD . SENT . SENT 103 CD . SENT H NP . SENT Romijn NP , , About IN the DT origin NN of IN consciousness NN . SENT A DT new JJ multidisciplinary JJ perspective NN on IN the DT relationship NN between IN brain NN and CC mind NN . SENT Proc NP Kon NP Ned NP Akad NP Wetensch NP 100 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 181 CD 267 CD . SENT 104 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT M NP . SENT Ross NP , , The DT response NN to TO light NN in IN Ichthyophis NP Amphibia NP Apoda NP from IN Ceylon NP . SENT Proc NP Zool NP Soc NN Lond NP 132 CD 1959 CD , , pp NP . SENT 83 CD 98 CD . SENT 105 CD . SENT Ross NP DM NP . SENT The DT sense NN organs NNS of IN Myxine NP glutinosa NP L NP . SENT In IN . SENT Brodal NP A NP , , Fange NP R NP , , editors NNS . SENT The DT Biology NN of IN Myxine NP , , Oslo NP . SENT Universitetsforlaget NP , , 1963 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 150 CD 160 CD . SENT . SENT 106 CD . SENT A DT . SENT Roth NP and CC P NN . SENT Schlegel NP , , Behavioral JJ evidence NN and CC supporting VVG electrophysiological JJ observations NNS for IN electroreception NN in IN the DT blind JJ cave NN salamander NN Proteus NP anguinus NP Urodela NP . SENT Brain NP Behav NP Evol NP 32 CD 1988 CD , , pp NP . SENT 277 CD 280 CD . SENT 107 CD . SENT Sacks NP O NP . SENT Awakenings NNS . SENT Garden NP City NP , , NY NP . SENT Doubleday NP , , 1974 CD . SENT . SENT 108 CD . SENT N NP . SENT Sadato NP , , A NP . SENT Pascual NP Leone NP , , J NP . SENT Grafman NP , , V NN . SENT Ibanez NP , , M NP . SENT P NN . SENT Deiber NP , , G NP . SENT Dold NP and CC M NP . SENT Hallett NP , , Activation NN of IN the DT primary JJ visual JJ cortex NN by IN Braille NP reading NN in IN blind JJ subjects NNS . SENT Nature NN 380 CD 1993 CD , , pp NP . SENT 526 CD 528 CD . SENT 109 CD . SENT H NP . SENT Schear NP , , The DT EEG NP pattern NN in IN delirium NN tremens NNS . SENT Clin NP Encephalography NN 16 CD 1985 CD , , pp NP . SENT 30 CD 32 CD . SENT 110 CD . SENT Schilt JJ CR NN , , Norris NP KS NP . SENT Perspectives NNS on IN sensory JJ integration NN systems NNS . SENT Problems NNS , , opportunities NNS and CC predictions NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Parrish NP JK NP , , Hammer NP Wm NP , , editors NNS . SENT Animal JJ Groups NNS in IN Three CD Dimensions NNS , , Cambridge NP . SENT Cambridge NP University NP Press NP , , 1997 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 225 CD 244 CD . SENT . SENT 111 CD . SENT Slaby NP AE NP , , Cullen NP LO NP . SENT Dementia NN and CC delirium NN . SENT In IN . SENT Stpudemire NP A NP , , Fogel NP BS NP , , editors NNS . SENT Principles NNS of IN Medical NP Psychiatry NP , , New NP York NP . SENT Grune NP Stratton NP , , 1987 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 135 CD 175 CD . SENT . SENT 112 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT Snowdon NP , , Aging VVG and CC Alzheimers NP disease NN . SENT Lessons NNS from IN the DT Nun NN Study NN . SENT J NP Am NP Med NP Assoc NP 37 CD 1997 CD , , pp NP . SENT 150 CD 156 CD . SENT 113 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT Spiegel NP , , E NP . SENT J NP . SENT Frischholz NP and CC J NP . SENT Spira NP , , Functional JJ disorders NNS of IN memory NN . SENT Rev NP Psychiatry NP 12 CD 1993 CD , , pp NP . SENT 747 CD 782 CD . SENT 114 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT D SYM . SENT Staton NP , , P NN . SENT J NP . SENT Hass NP and CC R NP . SENT A DT . SENT Brumback NP , , Electroencephalographic JJ recording NN during IN temporal JJ and CC unilateral JJ non JJ dominant JJ hemisphere NN Lancaster NP position NN electroconvulsive JJ herapy NN . SENT J NP Clin NP Psychiatry NP 42 CD 1981 CD , , pp NP . SENT 264 CD 269 CD . SENT 115 CD . SENT Steriade NP M NP . SENT The DT thalamus NN and CC sleep NN disturbances NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Guilleminault NP C NP , , Lugaresi NP P NN , , Montagna NP P NN , , Gambetti NP P NN , , editors NNS . SENT Fatal JJ Familial JJ Insomnia NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Raven NP Press NP , , 1994 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 177 CD 189 CD . SENT . SENT 116 CD . SENT J NP . SENT T NN . SENT Szymczak NP , , W NP . SENT Kaiser NP , , H NP . SENT W NP . SENT Helb NP and CC B NP . SENT Besczczynska NP , , A DT study NN of IN sleep NN in IN the DT European JJ blackbird NN . SENT Physiol NP Behav NP 60 CD 1996 CD , , pp NP . SENT 1115 CD 1120 CD . SENT 117 CD . SENT H NP . SENT M NP . SENT Thaker NP and CC D NP . SENT R SYM . SENT Kankel NP , , Mosaic JJ analysis NN gives VVZ an DT estimate NN of IN the DT extent NN of IN genomic JJ involvement NN in IN the DT development NN of IN the DT visual JJ system NN in IN Drosophila NN melanogaster NN . SENT Genet NNS 141 CD 1992 CD , , pp NP . SENT 883 CD 894 CD . SENT 118 CD . SENT S NP . SENT Thanos NP and CC F NP . SENT Bonhoeffer NP , , Development NP of IN the DT transient JJ ipsilateral JJ retinotectal JJ projection NN in IN the DT chick NN embryo NN . SENT Numerical JJ fluorescence NN microscopic JJ analysis NN . SENT J NP Comp NP Neurol NP 224 CD 1984 CD , , pp NP . SENT 407 CD 414 CD . SENT 119 CD . SENT L NP . SENT G NP . SENT Ungerleider NP , , Functional JJ brain NN imaging NN studies NNS of IN cortical JJ mechanisms NNS for IN memory NN . SENT Science NN 270 CD 1995 CD , , pp NP . SENT 769 CD 775 CD . SENT 120 CD . SENT D SYM . SENT C LS . SENT Van NP Essen NP , , C NP . SENT H NP . SENT Anderson NP and CC D NP . SENT J NP . SENT Felleman NP , , Information NP processing NN in IN the DT primate NN visual JJ system NN . SENT An DT integrated JJ systems NNS perspective NN . SENT Science NN 255 CD 1992 CD , , pp NP . SENT 419 CD 423 CD . SENT 121 CD . SENT Velayos NP JL NP , , Reinoso NP Su NP rez NP F NP . SENT Organization NN of IN projections NNS from IN the DT reticular JJ thalamic JJ nucleus NN , , hypothalamus NN and CC basal JJ prosencephalon NN to TO the DT intralaminar NN and CC medial JJ thalamic JJ nuclei NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Mancia NP M NP , , Marini NP G NP , , editors NNS . SENT The DT Diencephalon NN and CC Sleep NP , , New NP York NP . SENT Raven NP Press NP , , 1990 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 249 CD 261 CD . SENT . SENT 122 CD . SENT A DT . SENT E SYM . SENT Verrill NP , , Nocturnal JJ and CC diurnal JJ changes NNS in IN the DT colors NNS of IN certain JJ fishes NNS and CC of IN the DT squid NN Loligo NP , , with IN notes NNS on IN their PP$ sleeping NN habits NNS . SENT Am NP J NP Sci NP 153 CD 1897 CD , , pp NP . SENT 135 CD 136 CD . SENT 123 CD . SENT Vertes NP RP NP . SENT Brainstem NN mechanisms NNS of IN slow JJ wave NN sleep NN and CC REM NP sleep NN . SENT In IN . SENT Klemm NP WR NP , , Vertes NP RP NP , , editors NNS . SENT Brainstem NN Mechanisms NNS of IN Behavior NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Wiley NP , , 1990 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 535 CD 583 CD . SENT . SENT 124 CD . SENT Verzeano NP M NP . SENT Activity NN of IN neuronal JJ networks NNS in IN cognitive JJ function NN . SENT In IN . SENT Thompson NP RF NP , , Hicks NP LH NP , , Shvyrkov NP , , VB NP , , editors NNS . SENT Neural JJ Mechanisms NNS of IN Goal NN Directed VVD Behavior NN in IN Learning NP , , New NP York NP . SENT Academic NP Press NP , , 1980 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 353 CD 373 CD . SENT . SENT 125 CD . SENT G NP . SENT L NP . SENT Walls NNS , , The DT evolutionary JJ history NN of IN eye NN movements NNS . SENT Vision NP Res NNS 2 CD 1962 CD , , pp NP . SENT 69 CD 80 CD . SENT 126 CD . SENT M NP . SENT C SYM . SENT Wanet NP Defalque NP , , C NP . SENT Veraart NP , , A NP . SENT DeVolder NP , , R NP . SENT Metz NP , , C NP . SENT Michel NP , , S NP . SENT Dooms NP and CC A NP . SENT Goffinet NP , , High NP metabolic JJ activity NN in IN the DT visual JJ cortex NN of IN early JJ blind JJ human JJ subjects NNS . SENT Brain NN Res NNS . SENT 446 CD 1988 CD , , pp NP . SENT 369 CD 373 CD . SENT 127 CD . SENT Warburton NP K NP . SENT Social JJ forces NNS in IN animal JJ congregations NNS . SENT Interactive JJ , , motivational JJ and CC sensory JJ aspects NNS . SENT In IN . SENT Parrish NP JK NP , , Hammer NP , , WM NP , , editors NNS , , Animal JJ Groups NNS in IN Three CD Dimensions NNS , , Cambridge NP . SENT Cambridge NP University NP Press NP , , 1997 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 313 CD 336 CD . SENT . SENT 128 CD . SENT C SYM . SENT D SYM . SENT Ward NP , , Encephalitis NN lethargica NN and CC the DT development NN of IN neuropsychiatry NN . SENT Psychiatric JJ Clinics NNS North JJ Amer NP 9 CD 1986 CD , , pp NP . SENT 215 CD 224 CD . SENT 129 CD . SENT Weiner NP RD NP , , Coffey NP CE NP . SENT Electroconvulsive JJ therapy NN in IN the DT mentally RB ill JJ . SENT In IN . SENT Stoudemire NP A NP , , Fogel NP , , BS NP , , editors NNS . SENT Principles NNS of IN Medical NP Psychiatry NP , , New NP York NP . SENT Grune NP Stratton NP , , 1987 CD . SENT p NN . SENT 113 CD 134 CD . SENT . SENT 130 CD . SENT R SYM . SENT D SYM . SENT Weiner NP and CC A NP . SENT D SYM . SENT Krystal NP , , EEG NP monitoring NN of IN ECT JJ seizures NNS . SENT Prog NP Psychiatry NP 38 CD 1993 CD , , pp NP . SENT 93 CD 109 CD . SENT 131 CD . SENT Wolberg NP LR NP . SENT Foreword NN . SENT In IN . SENT Edelstein NP MG NP , , editor NN , , Trauma NN , , Trance NN and CC Transformation NN , , New NP York NP . SENT Brunner NP Mazel NP , , 1981 CD . SENT p NN . SENT vii NN x SYM . SENT . SENT 132 CD . SENT J NP . SENT C SYM . SENT Wu NP and CC W NP . SENT E SYM . SENT Bunney NP , , The DT biological JJ basis NN of IN an DT antidepressant NN response NN to TO sleep VV deprivation NN and CC relapse NN . SENT Review NN and CC hypothesis NN . SENT Am NP J NP Psychiatry NP 147 CD 1990 CD , , pp NP . SENT 14 CD 21 CD . SENT 133 CD . SENT Zeki NP SM NP . SENT A DT Vision NP of IN the DT Brain NP . SENT Oxford NP . SENT Blackwell NP Scientific NP Publications NP , , 1993 CD . SENT . SENT Corresponding JJ author NN . SENT Tel NP . SENT . SENT 1 LS 310 CD 825 CD 3474 CD . SENT fax NN . SENT 1 LS 310 CD 206 CD 3987 CD . SENT email NP . SENT lkavanau NN biology NN . SENT ucla NN . SENT edu NP